Semantic Changes

1. Changes of Meaning . Generalities and Classification. 2. Types of Semantic Changes. Linguistic and Extralinguistic Causes. 3.Basic Types of Transfer of Meaning: a)Metaphor. Basic Types of Metaphor. b)Metonyny and Synechdochy. Basic Types of Metonymy. 4. Minor Types of Transfers of Meaning.

Lexical changes do not consist only in the addition or loss of words, but also in the change of the meaning of lexical items. Semantic changes are more frequent, and they contribute to a great extent to the enrichment of a language. In order to discuss semantic changes, there must always be taken into consideration an earlier stage and a later stage of development. This corresponds to a diachronic approach to language problems. On the other hand each of these two layers must be conceived as being analysable from a synchronic point of view.

Harbour comes from the late OE. harebeorg, from hare, meaning "army + beorg/ meaning "protection". -"shelter for military ships". -a place of shelter for ships". 1)Extralinguistic causes: Extralinguistic causes are determined especially by the modifications of the material culture and the appearance of new notions. Such causes can be easily illustrated by a large number of examples. -an electric handlight in a case containing a battery, but he calls it torch through a transfer of name. Terms denoting institutions underwent similar changes. When the word Academy was borrowed (the first record was in 1474), it was used as the name of a garden near Athens where Plato taught. About 1677 the term meant "the school system of Plato".

The evolution of culture is another important extralinguistic factor. 1) Social causes show a large variety of forms. One of them is the need of specialization. In architecture the term cell - means "the space between the ribs of a vaulted roof", in entomology it means "the space between the nerves of the wings of insects", in electricity it means" a vessel containing one pair of plates immersed in fluid to form a battery.

2) Other two important social reassons are: 1) the need of expressiveness (slang words, for example, in slang baby means "a girl, stomach bread basket.) 2)taboo and euphemism, (taboo words are replaced by euphemiams, which take upon them the meaning of the taboo word, to become in time taboo words themselves).

2)Linguistic causes:
Extralinguistic causes go hand in hand with linguistic ones. Social causes alone could not determine semantic changes: they are closely connected with linguistic phenomena.( the need of having specialized terms is a social cause. It is backed by the semantic phenomenon consisting in the narrowing of meaning).

Linguistic causes are usually classified according to two opposite poles:

1)Expansion or enlargement of meaning: (When the sense of a word is enlarged, the meaning of the word covers a larger field than the original one)-light -journal- "a daily record of transactions, or events, /-"a daily newspaper", but also "any periodical publication containing news in any particular sphere. -Pioneer -"a foot-soldier"./- the one who goes before to prepare the way", "one who begins some enterprise, "an original investigator. - Drugstore- "pharmacy-/- " a retail shop where are sold miscellaneous articles, including medicines". 2. Narrowing or restriction of meaning:

-Branch -"a portion or limb of a tree or other plant". Several abstract meanings are currently used nowadays, e.g. "one of the portions into which a family or race is divided", "a component portion of an organization or system 1, "a division, a aubdivision, a compartment". 2. Narrowing or restriction of meaning: When restriction of meaning is involved, the meaning of a word denoting a more general class is narrowed to a less comprehensive class. Some linguists sustain that this linguistic phenomenon is more frequent than the preceding one. Mare (Old Teutonic word, meant "horse). - "the female of the horse", hound -"a dog generally". -/-"a dog used for chase".

Fowl -"bird, -/-a domestic cock or hen. In the U.S. fowl is also applicable to "the domestic duck and turkey . -Hospite, - "a place of rest and entertainment" as in the establishments of the Knights Hospitallers. -"a charitable institution for the housing of the needy, infirm or aged", -"an institution the care of the sick and wounded. Psychological criteria can be also used in classifying changes of meaning. These criteria are closely connected with the attitude of the speakers towards the meaning of words, i.e, the connotations of the implied terms. The changes in denotation are accompanied by changes in connotation.

There are two opposite kinds of developments: 1. Pejorative developments or degradation of meaning: (the connotations are those corresponding to contempt and disapproval) -Suburban -"of or belonging to the suburbs of a town", "living, situated, operating on the suburbs; /-"having characteristics that are regarded as belonging especially to life in the suburbs of a city", as "having inferior manners the narrowness of view, etc., "which are attributed to the residents in suburbs.

Analogy plays an important part in the process of meaning

degradation. This is extremely evident in the following examples, in which the name of an animal came to denote something else. - Sheep -the term came to denote "a person who is stupid, timid, or poor-spirited".

This type of degradation of meaning is called zoosemy. -Knight in OE. -"boy", "a boy or lad used as an attendant or servant". ; knights were also used as military servants, and, as they raised in social position, favourable connotations began to be attached to the term, and the denotation was also changed. In the Middle Ages "a military servant of the King or of a person of high rank", and feudal tenant holding land from superiors on condition of serving in the field as a mounted and well-armed man". Thus other ameliorative changes of meaning were possible. A knight is "a man upon whom corresponding rank is conferred by the King in recognition of personal merits". Following the history of such words, one follows in fact the history of society with its social fluctuations. One also notices how closely connected pejorative and ameliorative developments are.

Smart -"inflicting or causing pain; sharp, biting, stinging"./"clever, capable; quick at devising, learning", "clever in talk or argument. Words denoting rank, e.g. squire, lady, lord, earl, queen, frequently underwent a process of elevation of meaning. A lord -" a master of servants", to become "one to whom service and obedience are due: a master, chief, prince, sovereign".

Many changes of meaning, which have as a result either an enlargement or a restriction of meaning, are based on transfers of meaning. According to the kind of association which is involved there are : 1)transfers of meaning based on similarity (Associations of the similarity type lead to metaphor) 2)Transfers of meaning based on contiguity. ( Contiguity means the condition of being in "contact", "proximity", but, of course, this condition must be taken in a broad sense., ) Assocoation of the contiguity type lead to metonymy.
Metaphor also involves the process of comparison, but it is not an explicit comparison, but an implicit one, in which there is an exchange between the meanings of two words. In a metaphor, a word is used to mean something different from what it usually means, this phenomenon being possible due to an implied resemblance. According to O.K. Ogden and I. A. Richards "Whenever a term is is taken outside the universe of discourse for which it has been defined, it becomes a metaphor, and may be in need of fresh definition.

3.Transfers of Meaning.

Metaphor.

In order to describe the basic structure of a metaphor, I.A. Richards conceived a theory in which he introduced two technical terms of paramount importance tenor end vehicle. -the tenor (the thing somebody is speaking about) - the vehicle (the thing to which the tenor is compared). The term metaphor covers both units. The meaning of metaphor results from the interaction of the tenor and vehicle. Stephen Ullmann shows that the ground of the metaphor may be of two kinds: bjektive and emotive. - objective- ( when the ridge of a mountain is called a crest) - emotive (of a bitter disapointement because its effect is similar to that of a bitter taste)

Roman JacoBson. and. Morris Halle sustain that there is a close relationship between the use of metaphor and metonymy and the attitude towards life on the one hand, and literary genres on the other hand: "... it is generally realized that romanticism is closely linked with metaphor, whereas the equally intimate ties of realism with metonymy usually remain unnoticed. Metonymy and Synecdoche. Metonymy consists' in the use of the name of one thing for that of something else, with which it is usually associated. This can be a significant attribute of an object, or another object organically connected to the former.

Metonymies can be classified according to several criteria; a)The use of the symbol for the thing symbolized.(pen/sword) b) The use of the material an object is made of for the object itself. "The more women look in their glass, the less they look to their house ". c)The use of the holder for the content e.g. bottle. d)The use of the maker's name for the product. Trade names have also transfered their names to the respective products, e.g. a Vauxhall, a Kent, a Grundig. e)The use of the place name where the object is or was originally made for the product. f)The use of the part for the whole, and of the whole for the part : roof is used for "house", the army is used for "soldier". g) The abstract is used for the concrete, and the concrete for the abstract: flesh and blood for "relationships, family".

Other Types of Semantic Changes.

-Hyperbole -Litotes - Euphemism Transfers of meanings contribute to a great extent to the development of the vocabulary, being a major source of evolution in language.