In the name of Allah the most beneficent the most merciful

MID COUNTRY REFINERY

FIELD INSTRUMENTATION

INSTRUMENTATION HIRARCHY
Muhammad Rasheed (Chief Engineer)

Muhammad Usman (Group Head Process Area)

Shahid Umer (Group Head

Control Systems)

Moazzam Ali (Group Head U & OM Area)

Gohar Waheed Khan (Group Head Analyzers)

Area Engg Technologist Technician

Area Engg Technologist Technician

Area Engg Technologist Technician

Area Engg Technologist Technician

What is an Instrument?
An instrument is a device that measures and/or regulates physical quantity/process variables such as flow, temperature, level, or pressure.

FIELD INSTRUMENTATION
1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Pressure Measurement Level Measurement Flow Measurement Temperature Measurement Flame Detection System Control Valves Vibration Monitoring System

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

Pressure Instrumentation
Definition
Types of Pressures and their conversion Measureable Process Pressures Pressure Gauges and its types Pressure Transmitters Pressure Switches Pressure Control Valves (PCVs) Pressure Control Loop Pressure Units and their conversion

What is Pressure?
Pressure is the amount of force applied over a defined

area. The relationship between pressure, force, and area is represented in the following formula:

Where: P = Pressure F = Force A = Area If a force (due to physical contact) is applied over an area, pressure is being applied. Pressure increases if the force increases or the size of the area over which the force is being applied decreases.

Example:
Weight X and Weight Y in the following Figure 1.1 are

applying different amounts of pressure to the surface; even though the two weights are each 100 lb. Weight X has a base of 100 in2.

 Therefore, the pressure being applied by Weight X is 100 lb

of force being applied over an area of 100 in2, or 1 lb/in2. Weight Y is resting on a 1 in2 base. Therefore, the pressure being applied by Weight Y is 100 lb of force being applied over an area of 1 in2, or 100 lb/in2.

 Weight Y is resting on a 1 in2 base. Therefore, the pressure

being applied by Weight Y is 100 lb of force being applied over an area of 1 in2, or 100 lb/in2.

Types Of Pressure
Pressure-measurement devices can be categorized according to the

reference pressure from which they measure. The three reference pressures are: 1. Absolute Pressure 2. Gauge Pressure 3. Differential Pressure Absolute and gauge devices measure the difference between the pressure of the process fluid and a reference pressure. Differential devices take two pressure measurements of the process fluid at different points and measure the difference between them.

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Absolute pressure measurements compare measured

pressure to a perfect vacuum (or 0 psia). Because no pressure reading can be less than a perfect vacuum, an absolute pressure-measurement device will never have a negative reading. The reference pressure of an absolute pressure-measurement device (i.e., a perfect vacuum) never changes.

GAUGE PRESSURE
A gauge pressure-measurement instrument uses the pressure of the

surrounding atmosphere (approximately 14.7 psi) as a reference pressure. Changes in atmospheric pressure (such as those due to changes in the weather) cause the output of a gauge sensor to change. Depending on the application, the output change may or may not be desirable. In process systems not open to atmosphere (e.g., a process in a un-vented tank), pressures of the process material being measured could be less than the surrounding atmospheric pressure, which would result in a negative pressure reading.

DIFFERENTIAL RESSURE
A differential pressure measurement uses a second process

pressure as a reference pressure. Differential pressure measurements are often used to infer the rate of flow through a pipe by determining the pressure drop that occurs from one point in a system to another, such as the pressure drop that occurs across an orifice plate in a pipe. Changes in atmospheric pressure do not affect the output of a differential pressure-measurement instrument because both measured pressure and reference pressure are equally influenced by exposure to the atmosphere.

Converting Absolute Pressure Measurements

An absolute pressure measurement registers the

pressure of the surrounding atmosphere as part of the pressure reading, whereas a gage pressure measurement uses atmospheric pressure as its reference. Therefore, absolute values can be converted to gage values by subtracting atmospheric pressure from the absolute pressure reading.

 For example, to find the gauge value for an absolute

pressure measurement device that reads 34.7 psia and is surrounded by an atmosphere of 14.7 psia, use the following equation:

 To convert a gauge value to an absolute value, simply

reverse the process described above. atmospheric pressure to the gage value.

Add

14.7 psia is slightly higher than the standard pressure value of 1 atm, which is 14.6959 psi. The value changes depending on the weather and the location of the instrument, but normally does not vary more than a few tenths. For most applications, using a value of 14.7 psia for atmospheric pressure is sufficient.

 The three types of measurable pressures in the process

control industry follow: Head pressure Static pressure Vapor pressure HEAD PRESSURE Head pressure, also known as hydrostatic pressure, is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid. Head pressure is directly proportional to the specific gravity of the fluid and the height of the fluid column. Head Pressure= Height x S.G.

STATIC PRESSURE
Static pressure, or line pressure, is the pressure

exerted in a closed system. A closed system is a system that is sealed from atmosphere. An example of static pressure can be found in a common boiler system. As the water in the boiler is heated, pressure increases. The term static or line pressure is more commonly used in flow applications and refers to the pressure exerted by the fluid in the pipe.

VAPOR PRESSURE
Vaporization is the transformation of a substance from a liquid

state to a gas state (e.g., water to steam). The transformation occurs at a specific temperature for each liquid. For example, water turns to steam (boils) at 212 F (100 C). Increased pressure causes the boiling point of a liquid to rise. Conversely, a decrease in pressure causes the boiling point of a liquid to fall. For example, water boils at 212 F at or near sea level, but at high altitudes where the atmospheric pressure is lower, water boils at less than 212 F.

Pressure Gauges
All pressure measurements depend upon some

portion of the instrument being physically moved by the pressure source being measured. Two types of pressure-measurement gauges are liquid column gauges and mechanical gauges. In a liquid column gauge, the height of a column of liquid varies in response to applied pressure. Mechanical gauges have mechanical parts that move in response to applied pressure.

LIQUID COLUMN GAUGES

There are two types of liquid column pressure gauges:

Barometer Manometer Barometer A barometer is a device that measures atmospheric pressure. A barometer consists of a clear, hollow tube with one end blocked off. The tube is filled with liquid and set, with the blocked end pointing up, into a reservoir of fill liquid (typically mercury)

When the tube is upright and longer than the column of liquid at atmospheric pressure, there is a void at the top of the tube. For example, a column of mercury is 29.9 in high (29.9 inHg) at a pressure of 1 atm. Therefore, the barometer tube must be longer than 30 in. The distance from the top of the liquid in the reservoir to the top of the liquid in the barometer is the barometric (atmospheric) pressure. If the atmospheric pressure changes, the level of the fluid in the tube changes as well. Barometers are highly accurate. They are often used as a reference for calibrating other pressure instruments. Barometers are also commonly used for weather forecasting. Barometer

Manometer
A derivation of the barometer is the manometer. A manometer is a clear, U-shaped tube partially filled with fluid. One leg of the manometer is the reference side; the other leg is the measured side. A pressure measurement is made by comparing the fluid levels of the column in each leg of the manometer U. If the reference side of the manometer U is open to atmospheric pressure, the manometer will function as a gage instrument. If the reference side of the manometer U is sealed, a vacuum exists above the fluid column on the reference side of the manometer. In this case, the manometer will function as an absolute instrument.

Manometer

MECHANICAL PRESSURE GAUGES

Mechanical pressure gauges have two basic parts: 1. Sensing device 2.Mechanical dial or indicator. The most commonly used types of pressure-sensing devices are: 1. Bourdon tube 2.Bellows and capsules Mechanical pressure gauges are still widely used in the process control industry.

Bourdon Tube
Bourdon tubes are curled, flexible tubes with one closed end. As fluid flows into a bourdon tube, the tube straightens. As pressure increases, the tube straightens further. When pressure decreases, the tube springs back to its original shape. Several different metals and other materials are used to make bourdon tubes. Bourdon tubes come in four designs: 1. C shaped 2. Twisted 3. Helical 4. Spiral

Bourdon Tubes

Application of C-Shaped Bourdon Tube

Bellows and Capsules

Bellows and capsules are pleated, flexible chambers that expand when filled with material under pressure. The individual chambers of a capsule are sealed so that only the first chamber in the series is actually in contact with process pressure. A bellows is open inside.

Bellows

Capsules tend to spring back to their original shape when the pressure is released. Bellows often require an external spring to push them back into shape. A reference pressure may also be applied to the outside of the bellows or capsule.

Capsular Element

TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS

Several types of sensors used with electronic pressure transmitters are listed below:
Variable capacitance Piezoelectric Variable inductance Variable reluctance Vibrating wire Strain gauge

How Variable Capacitance Transmitter Works?

 Capacitance between conductors is inversely proportional

to the distance separating them, capacitance on the lowpressure side will increase while capacitance on the highpressure side will decrease. The most common sensing element used by modern DP transmitters is the diaphragm. One side of this diaphragm receives process fluid pressure from the high port, while the other receives process fluid pressure from the low port. Any difference of pressure between the two ports causes the diaphragm to flex from its normal resting (center) position. This flexing is then translated into an output signal by any number of different technologies, depending on the manufacturer and model of the transmitter.

Pressure Units
UNITS OF FORCE OVER AREA

Pounds per square inch (psi) Kilograms per square centimeter (kg/cm2) Grams per square centimeter (g/cm2)1 g/cm2 =1/1,000 kg/cm2 Pascals (Pa or N/m2)N stands for Newton Kilopascals (kPa)1 kPa = 1,000 Pa Bar1 bar = 100,000 Pa Millibar (mbar)1 mbar = 1/1,000 bar

UNITS REFERENCED TO COLUMNS OF FLUID

Inches of water (inH2O at 68 F [20 C] or at 39.2 F [4C]) Feet of water (ftH2O) Meters of water (mH2O) Millimeters of water (mmH2O) Inches of mercury (inHg) Millimeters of mercury (mmHg) Atmosphere (atm)the pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere at sea level Torr1 torr = 1 mmHg

UNIT CONVERSION

LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Level Measurement
Definitions
Introduction to Level Measurement Techniques used

at MCR Level Control Loop

Material properties that can be determined from a level measurement:

Interface Density Mass Volume

INTERFACE

An interface is the boundary between two immiscible (incapable of being mixed) fluids with different densities (e.g., oil and water). An interface measurement finds the boundary between two liquids stored in the same tank, each with a different density. For example, when oil and water occupy the same vessel, the oil floats on top of the water. The interface between the two fluids is the upper level of the water and the lower level of the oil

DENSITY
Density is the mass of a material per unit of volume. Density is often expressed in terms of grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water at a common reference temperature. Water has a density of 1 g/cm3 (62.43 lb/ft3) at 39.2 F (4 C). Glycerin, a compound often found in soaps, has a density of 78.66 lb/ft3. Therefore, glycerins specific gravity is 1.26 (78.66 62.43).

MASS
Mass, the amount of matter an object contains, is often equivocated to weight. Mass is typically expressed in terms of kilograms, grams, tons, or pounds. Mass is unaffected by temperature.

VOLUME
Volume is the space occupied by a quantity of material. Volume is typically expressed in gallons, liters, cubic centimeters, cubic feet, or barrels. Volume is the measurement most commonly derived from level. Volume is usually calculated by first measuring the level of process in a tank and then calculating the process volume based upon the appropriate equations for the tank geometry. Some level-measurement devices measure the mass directly (e.g., load cells). Mass = Density x Volume

LEVEL TRANSMITTERS USED IN MCR

Level Gauges Differential Pressure level Transmitter. Displacer/Float type level Transmitter. Bubbler type level Transmitter(Cooling Tower). Nuclear type level Transmitter(CCR). Radar type level Transmitter(DHDS). Ultrasonic Level Transmitter(ETP).

LEVEL GAUGE
A very simple means by which liquid level is measured in a vessel is

by the gauge glass method (Figure 1). In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top (top connection not needed in a tank open to atmosphere) of the tank that is monitored. The height of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of water in the tank.

LEVEL GAUGE GLASS TRANSPARENT

If it is desired to measure the level of a vessel at higher temperatures and pressures, a different type of gauge glass is used. The type of gauge glass utilized in this instance has a body made of metal with a heavy glass or quartz section for visual observation of the liquid level. The glass section is usually flat to provide strength and safety. Figure 2 illustrates a typical transparent gauge glass.

LEVEL GAUGE GLASS REFLEX

Another type of gauge glass is

the reflex gauge glass (Figure 3). In this type, one side of the glass section is prism-shaped. The glass is molded such that one side has 90-degree angles which run lengthwise. Light rays strike the outer surface of the glass at a 90-degree angle. The light rays travel through the glass striking the inner side of the glass at a 45-degree angle. The presence or absence of liquid in the chamber determines if the light rays are refracted into the chamber or reflected back to the outer surface of the glass.

Differential Pressure Level Transmitter

The differential pressure (P) detector method of liquid level measurement uses a P detector connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher pressure, caused by the fluid in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure (usually atmospheric). This comparison takes place in the P detector. Figure illustrates a typical differential pressure detector attached to an open tank.

 The tank is open to the atmosphere; therefore, it is necessary to use

only the high pressure (HP) connection on the P transmitter. The low pressure (LP) side is vented to the atmosphere; therefore, the pressure differential is the hydrostatic head, or weight, of the liquid in the tank. The maximum level that can be measured by the P transmitter is determined by the maximum height of liquid above the transmitter. The minimum level that can be measured is determined by the point where the transmitter is connected to the tank. Not all tanks or vessels are open to the atmosphere. Many are totally enclosed to prevent vapors or steam from escaping, or to allow pressurizing the contents of the tank. When measuring the level in a tank that is pressurized or the level that can become pressurized by vapor pressure from the liquid, both the high pressure and low pressure sides of the P transmitter must be connected.

DRY LEG

The high pressure connection is connected to the tank at or below the lower range value to be measured. The low pressure side is connected to a "reference leg" that is connected at or above the upper range value to be measured. The reference leg is pressurized by the gas or vapor pressure, but no liquid is permitted to remain in the reference leg. The reference leg must be maintained dry so that there is no liquid head pressure on the low pressure side of the transmitter. The high pressure side is exposed to the hydrostatic head of the liquid plus the gas or vapor pressure exerted on the liquids surface. The gas or vapor pressure is equally applied to the low and high pressure sides. Therefore, the output of the P transmitter is directly proportional to the hydrostatic head pressure, that is, the level in the tank. Where the tank contains a condensable fluid, such as steam, a slightly different arrangement is used. In applications with condensable fluids, condensation is greatly increased in the reference leg. To compensate for this effect, the reference leg is filled with the same fluid as the tank. The liquid in the reference leg applies a hydrostatic head to the high pressure side of the transmitter, and the value of this level is constant as long as the reference leg is maintained full. If this pressure remains constant, any change in P is due to a change on the low pressure side of the transmitter

WET LEG

The filled reference leg applies a hydrostatic pressure to the high pressure side of the transmitter, which is equal to the maximum level to be measured. The P transmitter is exposed to equal pressure on the high and low pressure sides when the liquid level is at its maximum; therefore, the differential pressure is zero. As the tank level goes down, the pressure applied to the low pressure side goes down also, and the differential pressure increases. As a result, the differential pressure and the transmitter output are inversely proportional to the tank level.

Advantages
Externally installed Can also be isolated safely for

maintenance and testing

Disadvantages
Density dependant Require two vessel penetrations Cannot be used with liquids

that solidify as concentrations increase

their

Displacers / Float type Level Transmitter

Working Principles

Float devices

operate on the buoyancy Principle, as liquid level changes a float will move correspondingly if the density of float will be less that fluid in vessel.

Displacers work on the Archimedes Principle, when a body

is immersed in a fluid it loses weight equal to that of the fluid displaced. By detection of the apparent weight of the immersed displacer, a level measurement can be inferred. When the cross sectional area of the displacer and the density of the liquid is constant, then a unit change in level will result in a reproducible unit change in displacer weight.

Advantages
Accurate and adaptable to wide variations in fluid densities

Disadvantages
Density dependant since the displacement of the body (its weight

loss) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. Change in the specific gravity changes the weight of the displaced fluid, resulted the change in the calibration. This is especially problematic in interface measurements.

 This simple level measurement

Bubbler type level Transmitter

has a dip tube installed with the open end close to the bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas, usually air or nitrogen passes through the tube and the resultant air pressure in the tube corresponds to the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel. The air pressure in the bubbler tube varies proportionally with the change in head pressure.

Advantages
Simplicity of design Low initial cost are

Disadvantages
Calibration is directly affected by changes in product

density Periodic cleaning of device Bubbler tube blockage

Nuclear type level Transmitter

 Nucleonic

level controls are used for point and continuous measurements, typically where most other technologies are unsuccessful. The radioisotopes used for level measurement emit energy at a fairly constant rate but in random bursts. Gamma radiation, the source generally used for nucleonic level gauging is similar to microwaves or even light (these are also electromagnetic radiation, but of lower energy and longer wavelength). The short wavelength and higher energy of gamma radiation penetrates the vessel wall and process media. A detector on the other side of the vessel measures the radiation field strength and infers the level in the vessel. Different radioisotopes are used, based on the penetrating power needed to "see" the process within the vessel. With single point gauges the radiation provides a simple on/off switching function, whereas with continuous level measurement the percentage of transmission decreases as the level increases.

Advantages
no penetration of the vessel is needed Suitable for high temperatures / pressures / toxic / corrosive

Disadvantages
Expensive Hidden costs include initial licensing and periodic

surveying

ULTRASONIC LEVEL TRANSMITTER

Ultrasonic transmitters work on the

principle of sending a sound wave from a peizo electric transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length of time it takes for the reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A successful measurement depends on reflection from the process material in a straight line back to the transducer.

RADAR LEVEL TRANSMITTER

Pulsed Wave systems emit a

microwave burst towards the process material; this burst is reflected by the surface of the material and detected by the same sensor which now acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the time of flight (transmission to reception) of the microwave signal.

Advantages highly accurate measurements in storage tanks excellent, but fairly expensive technology immune to most vapors / physical characteristics of the measured media Disadvantages difficulty making accurate measurement when the media is in close proximity Cannot measure interfaces Cost

FLOW INSTRUMENTATION

Flow Measurement
Introduction
Inferred Measurement Volumetric Flow Mass Flow Fluid Types Flow Profile Types of Flowmeters at MCR

Introduction
Flow of a fluid can be expressed in terms of its velocity, its

instantaneous volumetric or mass flow rate in terms of the total quantity passed (either volume or mass) in a given time.
It should be noted that liquid flow measurement is affected by

Temperature, Turbulence, Transitional and Laminar Flow profiles.

Velocity

Flow inferred from velocity

Fluids do not move at the same velocity at all points across a pipe - generally they move faster in the centre and slower near the walls. Thus the velocity of the fluid can be either its velocity at a given point (e.g. at the centre of the pipe etc.) or its average velocity. The SI unit for both point and average flow velocity measurement is meters/second. (m/s)

INFERRED MEASUREMENT
In an inferred measurement, flow rate is not

measured directly. Instead, some other variable, in this instance, velocity is measured and then translated into a flow rate based on the cross sectional area of the pipeline.

Volumetric Flow Rate

How much fluid is passing through the pipeline or system?

One way to describe a quantity of fluid is by giving the volumetric flow rate; the volume of fluid that is transported over some period of time, i.e. gallons per minute, liters per hour, and so forth. Volumetric flow rate can be determined from the velocity of the fluid if the area of the pipeline is known. Volumetric Flow Rate = Average Velocity x Cross section Area of Pipe Thus Q= AXV Where: Q=Volumetric flow rate (m/s) v = Average velocity (m/s) A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m)

LIMITATIONS OF VOLUMETRIC MEASUREMENT

Change in density with temperature of fluid. As the temperature of a gas increases, the molecules move further apart. This means there is a smaller amount by weight of the measured fluid in a given volume than there would be at some lower temperature Increases in pressure will cause the molecules to move closer together, resulting in more of the measured fluid by weight in a given volume Solution Use devices that provide temperature and pressure compensation. Mass flow measurements.

Mass Flow Rate

When very precise flow rate measurements are required, mass

flow meters are often preferred. Mass flow measurements give the actual weight of the fluid that is being transported per unit of time, such as pounds per hour, kilograms per second, and so forth. Mass Flow Rate = Volumetric Flow Rate x Density of the Fluid Thus W = Q X P Where: W= Mass flow rate (kg/s) Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/s) P = Density of fluid (kg/m)

Total Quantity (Volumetric)

The total quantity expressed in terms of volume

passed in a given time. Total Quantity = Mass Flow Rate x Time Thus V = Q X t Where: V = Total quantity (m) Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/s) t = Time (s)

Fluid Properties

Density Viscosity Fluid type Flow profile

DENSITY
Density () is the mass per unit volume of a fluid typically given at a

reference temperature and pressure. Density = mass / volume temperature.

Density is directly proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to

Animportant parameter for flowmeter selection and performance.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity can be thought of as fluid thickness. Viscosity is a measure of a fluids tendency to resist a shearing

force or to resist flow Typical units used for viscosity are poise (cm/g/sec) and centipoises (cp). Fluid viscosity is inversely proportional to temperatureas temperature increases, fluid viscosity decreases. Gas viscosity is an exception. Gas viscosity is proportional to temperatureas temperature increases, gas viscosity increases.

FLUID TYPE

Clean fluidA fluid that is free from solid particles (e.g., water)
Dirty fluidA fluid containing solid particles (e.g., muddy water)

SlurryA liquid with a suspension of fine solids that can flow freely through a pipe (e.g. pulp and paper) Steam Note: The type of fluids to be measured can give an indication of the type of flowmeter that may work best for that particular application.

FLOW PROFILE

Laminar Turbulent Transition

Laminar: In laminar flow, fluid flows in smooth, uniformed layers. As a result, there is a very little mixing of fluid across the pipe cross section. The layers in the center of the pipe have the highest velocity, while friction between the fluid and the pipe wall causes a lower velocity near the pipe wall. Laminar flow profiles occur when Viscous (restraining) forces > Inertial (driving) forces

Turbulent:
Turbulent flow profiles often occur with low-viscosity fluids, when Inertial forces > Viscous forces. The low viscosity enables turbulent eddies (whirlpools) to form, which occur randomly in the fluid stream. Fluid velocity is nearly constant across the pipe cross section (uniform flow); with significantly lower velocity occurring only very near the pipe wall. Considerable mixing takes place across the pipe cross section.

Transition Transition flow profiles mark the change from laminar to turbulent
flows. Transition flow varies depending on the pipe radius and may have characteristics of laminar flow, turbulent flow, or both.

REYNOLDS NUMBER The Reynolds number (RD) is the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force in the flow stream. The basic equation for the Reynolds number is:

Where: = Fluid density v = Fluid velocity D= Pipe inside diameter = Fluid viscosity

 Reynolds number is especially helpful in predicting the flow profile:

LaminarRD <2,000 TransitionRD 2,0004,000 TurbulentRD >4,000

Some flowmeters have Reynolds number restrictions on the accuracy of measurement.

Types of Flow meters

DP flowmeters Velocity flowmeters Mass flowmeters Positive displacement flowmeters (also called

volumetric flowmeters) Rotameter Ultrasonic flowmeters

DP Flowmeters
Flowmeters in this class measure the differential pressure (P)

caused by a primary element in the flow stream.

Most common

DP flowmeters work because of the equation of continuity and

Bernoullis equation.

The equation of continuity shows that for a steady, uniform flow

rate, a decrease in pipe diameter (A) results in an increase in fluid velocity (v): v1A1=v2A2

 Bernoullis equation says that the total of kinetic, potential and pressure

energy within a fluid stream remains constant. If velocity increases, there must be a corresponding decrease in either pressure energy or potential energy. The flow equation used for DP flowmeters is based on Bernoullis equation. Volumetric flow rate (Q) is proportional (a) to the square root of differential pressure:

 DP flowmeters consist of two parts: a primary device and a secondary

device. The primary device is placed in the process pipe to restrict the flow and create a pressure drop. The secondary device measures the differential pressure and transmits the result to a control system.

Some of the most common primary elements are:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Orifice plate Flow nozzle Venturi tube Wedge

Energy and Flow Equation of Fluids

The total energy of fluid in a flow system is comprised of three components: potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. When described in terms of meters head of the flowing fluid, we must consider: Total Energy = Potential + Kinetic + Pressure Which includes? Z = Elevation of the center line of the pipe (m) V = Velocity of the fluid (m/sec) g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2) P = Static Pressure (N/M2) = Weight density of fluid (N/M3) Flow quantity inside a pipe is given as the product of the velocity of the fluid and the cross-sectional area of the pipe, that is: Q=V.A Where Q = Flow rate (m3/sec) V = Velocity (m/sec) A = Cross-sectional area (m2)

Now consider the flow in a pipe with a restriction as shown in Figure 1.

Flow in A Pipe With a Restriction If the flow is steady, then the same quantity of fluid must pass through the two different sections of the pipe work in a given time. Section 2 has a smaller crosssectional area than Section 1, therefore, the fluid must travel faster in Section 2 than in Section 1. Relating the flows for these two cross sectional areas: Q = A1V1 = A2V2 And when A1 > A2, then V1 < V2

 Because of the Principle of Conservation of Energy, an

increase in velocity in Section 2, which causes an increase in kinetic energy, must be compensated for by a corresponding decrease in potential or pressure energy. We can write an equalization equation to approximate the change in the potential energy (mgh) and the change in kinetic energy (1/2 mv2) resulting from this velocity change in the flowing fluid.

 Change in Potential Energy = Change in Kinetic Energy

Mgh = (1/2) Mv Canceling M from both sides and solving for V;. we get; V = Kh So the flowing velocity will be proportional to the square root of the differential pressure sensed across the flow restriction. Q = AV = AKh Where: Q = flow quantity A= flow restriction area K = flow constant h= differential pressure measured across the restriction

 The flow rate is proportional to the square root of the

differential pressure developed across a flow restriction.

This is the principle behind flow metering the flow can

be calculated if we measure the differential pressure across a defined flow restriction

To obtain a linear flow signal, we must always take the

square root of the measured differential pressure

Orifice plate:

An orifice plate is a thin disk placed in the path of fluid flow with a sharpedged opening (orifice) in it. The orifice plate acts as the primary element of a DP flowmeter.

Pitot Tube:
A common Pitot tube design for flow measurement consists of a cylindrical

probe inserted into the process pipe. The probe is bent at a 90 angle so that it points toward the source of fluid flow, parallel to the pipe wall.

The velocity of the moving fluid creates a high-impact pressure inside the

probe. Using a differential pressure transducer, this impact pressure is measured and compared with the static pressure measured through a port on a surface parallel to the pipe wall (usually on the probe). The differential pressure measured is proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid. In some Pitot tube designs, both impact and static pressure are measured by the same device installed in one pipeline tap.

Wedge Flow Element:

Wedge flow elements are inserted in the process pipe to create a wedged obstruction on the inner wall of the pipe. A differential pressure is created as the fluid flows past the obstruction. Wedge flowmeters are usually used with remote seals When impulse lines are used instead of remote seals, lagging is required on the impulse lines to prevent solidification of process fluids such as slurries and other viscous fluids.

Venturi Tube:

A venturi tube is composed of three main sections. Converging inlet gradually decreases the pipe diameter and creates a pressure drop. A high pressure tap is located at the start of the inlet cone. Throatthe inlet cone ends at the throat, where the low pressure tap is found. Fluid velocity is neither increasing nor decreasing in the throat. Diverging outlet conethe outlet cone increases in cross-sectional area, which enables the fluid to return to very near its original pressure. The outlet cone also eliminates air pockets and minimizes frictional losses.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS Used in applications that require a low pressure drop and high accuracy
Provides very low permanent pressure loss when compared to other DP

flowmeters
Work well with short straight piping requirements Cause no sudden changes in contour so can be used for measuring dirty

fluids and slurries that tend to build up on or clog orifice plates

Expensive

Flow Nozzle:
Flow nozzles consist of two main sections:

Elliptical inletthe flow nozzle is mounted in the pipeline so that the elliptical entrance of the nozzle is facing the source of the fluid flow. Fluid velocity increases as it enters the inlet and pressure decreases.
Throatthe inlet tapers to a cylindrical throat section, where the low pressure tap is located.

Rotameter:
Rotameters, also known as variable-area

flowmeters, are tapered glass, plastic, or metal tubes that must be mounted vertically. A float inside the tube rises in response to the fluid flow rate. Because the tube is tapered, pressure is higher at the bottom, or narrow end, of the tube than at the top. The float rests where the differential pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the float balances the weight of the float Commonly used for indication onlythat is, they provide only a local indication of flow

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS Not as accurate as other flowmeters Highly repeatable Must be removed and disassembled to change their flow range Inexpensive Simple design Often require some maintenance. Have a Reynolds number constraint for liquid measurement and cannot be used with abrasive fluids.

Velocity Flowmeters

Vortex flowmeter Turbine flowmeter

Vortex Flowmeter:
A vortex flowmeter is a bluff body, or

shedder, placed in the fluid flow stream that causes vortices or small eddies to form. The shedder acts as the primary device. As the fluid flows around the shedder, velocity increases and pressure decreases on one side, while velocity decreases and pressure increases on the other side. The alternating forces cause vortices to form that are picked up by the sensing mechanism. The fluid flow rate is obtained from the frequency (detected by the sensor), which is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

Turbine Flowmeter:
Turbine

flowmeters consist of a section of pipe that contains a multi blade rotor and a magnetic pickup coil. The entire fluid to be measured enters the flowmeter and passes through the rotor, which then turns at a velocity that is proportional to the fluid velocity. The magnetic pickup probe converts the rotor velocity to an output signal that has a frequency proportional to volumetric flow rate. The turbine flowmeter is based on the principle that the speed of a turbine that is driven by a flowing fluid is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTATION

Temperature Measurement
Introduction Temperature Measurement Scales

Temperature Sensors
Cold Junction Compensation Bi-metallic Gauges

INTRODUCTION

Temperature is a measure of a materials internal molecular activity

Five most common reasons for measuring temperature:

1. 2.

3.
4. 5.

Product quality and yield Efficiency Safety Monitoring Custody transfer

Temperature Measurement Scales

The three temperature measurement scales in use today are:
Fahrenheit Celsius (also called Centigrade) Absolute (Kelvin and Rankine)

Three common features to the development of these scales are:

1.

Two or more fixed points are chosen and assigned to a specific temperature on the scale. For example, the freezing point of water is used as a fixed point for both Celsius (0 C) and Fahrenheit (32 F) scales Each fixed point is associated with an observable or measurable phenomenonusually a physical property that changes predictably at the fixed point (e.g., the points at which water boils or freezes) A standard method is used to establish numerical values for measurements that fall between the fixed points.

2.

3.

Figure: Temperature Measurement Scale Comparison

ABSOLUTE SCALES
Absolute scales are scales that measure temperature relative to absolute zero. Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature of matter, or the temperature at which molecular activity ceases.Absolute scales are not often used in process industries.
KELVIN SCALE

Absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is equal to 0 K. Increments on the Kelvin scale are equal to increments on the Celsius scalethat is, 1 K = 1 C.
RANKINE SCALE

Absolute zero on the Rankine scale is equal to 0 R. Increments on the Rankine scale are equal to increments on the Fahrenheit scalethat is, 1 R = 1 F.
Equation for converting between Kelvin and Rankine

Rankine (R) = 1.8 * Kelvin (K)

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
Requirements for an industrial temperature sensor Can withstand high process temperatures, pressures, and vibration Fast response time, Accurate Stability
Two commonly used types of temperature sensors are:
1. 2.

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) Thermocouples (T/Cs).

RTDs and T/Cs have several construction characteristics in common (Figure): Sensing element Sensor sheath Lead wires Threaded adaptor (optional)

SENSOR SHEATH The sensor sheath, or cable housing, is constructed of metal and holds most of the component parts of the temperature sensor. The sensor packing, typically magnesium oxide (MgO), surrounds the sensing element and is contained within the sensor sheath. The sensor packing decreases the impact of process vibration on the sensing element and thus ensures a more accurate measurement. The end of the sensor sheath is sealed with a fill (e.g., epoxy) that keeps moisture out of the sheath and away from the sensing element Mineral insulated (MI) cable is becoming a standard for temperature sensor construction LEAD WIRES Lead wires are attached to the sensing element and then passed through the sensor sheath. The lead wires are insulated before exiting the sensor sheath. Lead wires connect the sensing element either directly to a distributed control system (DCS) or to a temperature transmitter connected to a DCS THREADED ADAPTOR The threaded adaptor is welded over the rear housing of the sensor sheath. One end of the threaded adaptor threads into a thermowell or directly into the process piping. The other end is typically threaded into a temperature transmitter, connection head, or conduit connection

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR

RTDs operate on the principle that the electrical resistance of a metal increases as temperature increases, a phenomenon known as thermoresistivity. A temperature measurement can be inferred by measuring the resistance of the RTD element. For metals, resistance is given by: R = x (l/A) where, R = resistance = resistivity l = length (m) A = cross-sectional area (m2)

When the temperature of a metal changes, its physical dimensions also change (e.g. length increases, cross-sectional area decreases). Metals have a positive resistance temperature coefficient (i.e. as temperature increases, resistance increases). By measuring the resistance change of the metal, the temperature of the metal can be determined. Several different pure metals (such as platinum, nickel and copper) can be used in the manufacture of RTDs. A typical RTD probe contains a coil of very fine metal wire, allowing for a relatively large resistance change without a great space requirement.

The three types of resistance metals most commonly used to construct RTDs are platinum, copper, and nickel
Platinum
1. 2. 3.

High accuracy and repeatability High resistance change per degree of temperature change High linearity throughout their temperature range

Copper
1.

2. 3.

Highly linear throughout their temperature range Limited accuracy and a narrower temperature range than platinum elements Copper elements are most often used for measuring temperature in bearings and motor windingsapplications in which accuracy is not critical High resistance change per degree of temperature change Poor linearity Limited accuracy Relatively narrow temperature range

Nickel
1.

2. 3. 4.

Figure compares thermoresistive characteristics for platinum, nickel, and copper RTD elements. (Note the platinum elements wider temperature range and more linear curve).

Table compares resistance temperature characteristics for platinum, nickel, and copper RTD elements

RTD SENSING ELEMENT DESIGN

RTD elements are available in several designs. The two most common designs are:

1.Wire-wound 2.Thin-film

Figure: Externally Wound RTD Sensing Element

Figure: Thin-film RTD Element

RTD SENSING ELEMENT RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

To get an accurate temperature reading from an RTD, the resistance of the

RTD sensing element must be measured. Each copper lead wire that connects the RTD sensing element to the resistance measuring device adds a small amount of resistance into the measurement. If this added resistance is ignored, an error is introduced and an inaccurate temperature measurement results. The error is referred to as a lead wire effect. The longer the wire run, the greater the error, or lead wire effect, reflected in the temperature measurement.

To compensate for lead wire effect, three-wire and four-wire RTDs are used

instead of two-wire RTDs. Three-wire RTDs are created by soldering one additional copper wire onto one of the lead wires. Four-wire RTDs are created by soldering one additional copper lead wire to each of the existing lead wires.

Figure: Two-, Three-, and Four-Wire RTDs

CONVERTING RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE

Once the resistance measurement is determined, it is converted to a

temperature measurement. One of two conversion methods is used: 1.RTD standard (e.g., IEC 751 standard) 2.Callendar-Van Dusen equation The IEC 751 Standard: The IEC 751 standard describes an ideal relationship between the resistance of platinum RTD and the temperature to which the RTD is subjected. For example, at 212 F (100 C), the IEC751 standard shows that ideal platinum RTD (one that exactly matches the IEC 751 standard) would have a resistance value of 138.5 W. When a transmitter or control system accepts a resistance signal from a platinum RTD subjected to 212 F (100 C), the IEC 751 standard curve is used to translate that resistance signal into a temperature reading. However, since actual RTDs are never ideal, they do not match the resistance versus temperature relationship as described in the IEC 751 standard. The difference between the actual RTD curve and the ideal RTD curve results in a measurement error, which is referred to as a sensor interchangeability error

THERMOCOUPLE (T/C)

A T/C consists of two wires of dissimilar metals (e.g., iron and constantan) that are joined at one end to form a hot junction (or sensing element). The temperature measurement is made at the hot junction of the T/C, which is in the process. The other end of the T/C lead wires, when attached to a transmitter or volt meter, form a cold or reference junction

Several types of T/Cs are available, each differing by the metals used to construct the element. The T/C categories are: Type EChromel and constantan Type JIron and constantan Type KChromel and alumel Types R and SPlatinum (Pt) and rhodium (Rh) (differing in the % of platinum) Type TCopper and constantan

Type E: T/Cs is susceptible to oxidation. Type E T/Cs (chromel-constanan) are gaining popularity because they have the highest output (most sensitive) and can be used over a wide range of temperatures. Type J: Type J T/Cs (iron-constanan) is among the first thermocouples to be widely used. The materials are rugged, but iron wire is susceptible to oxidation, especially at high temperatures. The corrosive effects of oxidation (poisoning) reduce the accuracy of the T/C. Type J T/Cs remain one of the most common T/C types in use today. Type K: Type K T/C (chromel-alumel) is commonly used for high-temperature applications. They are relatively inexpensive and offer a wide measurement range. Type K T/C is the most popular T/C type in industrial environments. Types R and S: Types R (Pt/13%Rh, Rh) and S (Pt/10%Rh, Rh) T/Cs are useful for extremely high temperature measurements. Because they are constructed from a platinum alloy, types R and S T/Cs are expensive and are used only when the process temperatures are too high for other T/Cs to function properly. Type T: Type T T/Cs (copper-constanan) is generally used in very low temperature (cryogenic) applications. Type T T/C elements are robust in high-humidity environments.

CREATING A HOT JUNCTION

Several different methods are used

to join the T/C lead wires at the hot junction, such as twisting, clamping, soldering, brazing, and various types of welding (e.g., bead and butt welding). For good performance, the hot junction must be constructed to be mechanically sound, electrically continuous, and not poisoned by the chemical ingredients of welding or brazing materials.

Hot Junction Styles

Junctions can be grounded or ungrounded to the sensor sheath. With dualelement T/Cs (two T/Cs in one sheath), the elements can be isolated or connected (UN isolated). Each configuration offers benefits and limitations: GroundedGrounding creates improved thermal conductivity, which in turn gives the quickest response time. However, grounding also makes T/C circuits more susceptible to electrical noise (which can corrupt the T/C voltage signal) and may cause more susceptibility to poisoning over time
Ungroundedungrounded junctions have a slightly slower response time

Hot Junction Configurations

than grounded junctions, but are not susceptible to electrical noise junctions will typically fail at the same time

Unisolatedunisolated junctions are at the same temperature, but both

Isolatedisolated junctions may or may not be at the same temperature.

Reliability of each junction is increased, however, because failure of one junction does not cause a failure in the second junction

T/C Junction Configurations

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT AND THE SEEBECK EFFECT

Seebeck effect is used to determine process temperature. According to the

Seebeck effect, a voltage measured at the cold junction of a T/C is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot junction and the cold junction. The voltage measured at the cold junction is commonly referred to as the Seebeck voltage, the thermoelectric voltage, or the thermoelectric EMF. As the temperature of the hot junction, or process fluid, increases, the observed voltage at the cold junction also increases by an amount nearly linear to the temperature increase. If the hot junction temperature is held constant, an increasing cold junction temperature will produce a decreasing voltage, because the temperature difference between the hot and cold junction is decreasing. When the cold and hot junctions are at the same temperature, the observed voltage will be 0 V. The magnitude of the voltage signal produced at the cold junction also depends on the type of metals used to form the T/C. Different metals, or different type of T/Cs, have different thermoelectric voltages at the same temperatures.

Cold Junction Compensation

Like RTDs, each type of T/C has a standard curve. The standard curve describes a T/Cs voltage versus temperature relationship when the cold junction temperature is 32 F (0 C). The cold junction is where the T/C lead wires attached to a transmitter or volt meter. Because the voltage measured at the cold junction is proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions, the cold junction temperature must be known before the voltage signal can be translated into a temperature reading. The process of factoring in the actual cold junction temperature (rather than assuming it is at 32 F [0 C]) is referred to as cold junction compensation (CJC).

The general steps for performing CJC are as follows: 1. Determine the temperature of the cold junction (room temperature) and find the corresponding voltage (CJV) in a reference book. 2. With the hot junction exposed to the process temperature, read the voltage output. 3. Add the measured process temperature voltage to the cold junction voltage (CJV) and look up the result in the standard curve table to find the true process temperature.

EXTENSION WIRE

WHY USE AN RTD RATHER THAN A T/C?

The main reasons for selecting RTDs rather than T/Cs are as follows: RTDs have better accuracy and repeatability. RTD signals are less susceptible to noisethey have a higher signal-to-noise ratio. RTDs have better linearity over temperature ranges. CJC and related errors are not associated with RTDs. RTD drift is predictable, while T/C drift is erratic and unpredictable. In addition, T/C drift errors can be large as a result of element poisoning and element oxidation at high temperatures. The changes that affect the output of an RTD or T/C occur over time due to mechanical shock, poisoning, and temperature cycling. These changes can be eliminated by performing another RTD characterization, an option not available for a T/C. RTDs do not need special extension wire.

Local Temperature Measurement

Usually local temperature measurements are provided by bimetallic thermometers. A bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding two metals with different coefficients of thermal expansion Figure 1 (a) If heat is applied to the strip, the metal with the higher coefficient of expansion will expand more than the other

As a result of the application of heat, the whole metallic strip will bend in the direction of the metal with the lower coefficient Figure 1(b)

Bimetallic Thermometer

If a pointer is attached to the end of the bimetallic strip, indication of the temperature sensed by the strip can be obtained Rugged Require little maintenance

FLAME DETECTION SYSTEM

CONTENTS
Purpose
Types of Flame Detection Systems

FIRED HEATERS
The purpose of a fired heater is very simple: To add heat to a process fluid. Its representation on a process flow diagram is also very simple. but, of course, fired heaters are among the most complex pieces of process control equipment.

 In PARCO MCR both natural drafts and forced drafts

burners are used depending upon the application

Each Fired Heater burner assembly is normally having two types of burners:

1. Main Burners 2. Pilot Burners

Pilot burners are normally used to ignite the main burners

Flame Detectors
The pilot flame detector is used to confirm that the pilot light has ignited and is burning in a stable manner The following types of pilot burner flame detectors are installed at PARCO MCR
1. Ionization Type Flame Detectors 2. Ultraviolet Type Flame Detectors

Ionization Type Flame Detectors

A flame rod is a simple electrode that projects into

the flame. When the flame is established, the D.C. current energizes a relay. The contacts of this relay can be used for control functions according to the application. Since it only senses flame at a point, it will not detect the main flame. A disadvantage is that the tips burn off after a period of time and a nuisance trip of the furnace will result.

Ultra-violet (UV) flame detector

A ultra-violet (UV) flame detector is probably the most popular on process heaters. It is, however, a rather complex device that requires certain precautions for reliable operation.

ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATIONS
The color of light depends on its wavelength. Visible light has a

wavelength ranging from about 380 nanometers (deep violet) to 840 nanometers (deep red). A nanometer (nm) is onebillionth of a meter. Light at wavelengths just below 380 nm is ultraviolet (the light that causes sunburn), while light at wavelengths just above 840 nm is infrared (radiant heat). Other parts of the light spectrum include things such as radio waves, microwaves, and x-rays. Visible light is the only part of the spectrum that we can see.

Wave Length Spectrum

Flame emits light with a continuous spectrum, that is, they emit light at every wavelength simultaneously. The spectrum of sunlight (sun surface temperature about 8000F) is spread from ultraviolet to infrared, with the highest levels in the visible range. It is no coincidence that the highest levels of sunlight are in the visible range: our eyes have evolved to use the available light.

THEORY OF OPERATION
Working Principle: The combustion flames of most carbon-based fuels emit sufficient ultraviolet radiation to enable the ultraviolet flame detector to prove the presence of a flame in a combustion chamber. The detector mounted outside the combustion chamber. Its mounting flange or union is threaded to one end of a sight pipe inserted through the wall of the combustion chamber. The ultraviolet sensing tube in the flame detector sights the flame through the pipe.

When a flame is present, the UV tube in the primary sensor senses the ultraviolet radiation emitted. The primary sensor produces a signal that is sent to the amplifier in the flame safeguard control. The amplified signal pulls in the flame relay in the control to allow proper operation of the system. Because it is necessary for the UV sensing tube to actually see the flame, it is best to locate the detector as close to flame as physical arrangement, temperature, and other restrictions permit.

Shutter Coil Assembly

Angle of sight
The first 30 percent of a flame (the root) radiates the most intense ultraviolet energy. The low angle sighting permits the detector to view a greater depth of the flame root, thus reducing the effects of irregularities in the flame pattern. The best sighting angle is nearly parallel to the axis of the flame.

CONTROL VALVES

CONTENTS
Definitions
Valve Characteristics Actuators Positioners

What Is A Control Valve?

IEC Definition: A power operated device which changes the fluid flow rate in a process control system. It consists of a valve connected to an actuator that is capable of changing the position of the closure member in the valve in response to a signal from the system
ISA Definition:

A power operated device which modifies the fluid rate in a process control system. It consists of a valve connected to an actuator mechanism that is capable of changing the position of a flow controlling element in the valve in response to a signal from the controlling system.

Pneumatic

3-15 PSIG

2715

PC

Supply

Positioner

Supply

50 PSIG TANK

Electro Pneumatic
Control Signal 4-20mA Process Variable 4-20mA

PC
Positioner

Supply

50 PSIG TANK

P1 = 75-100 psig

Control Loop Components

Sensor / Transmitter
Controller Control Valve

Valve Flow Coefficient

CV
The number of U.S. gallons per minute of water at 60 F which will pass through a given flow restriction with a pressure drop of 1 psi

Cv

= q

Gf P1 - P2

COMPONENTS OF CONTROL VALVES

The control valve consists of three main components: The valve actuator which converts electrical, mechanical or pressure energy into valve stem movement which creates the regulating effect of the valve body. The valve body which contains and regulates the fluid flow. The valve Accessories which respond on necessary signals (electrical/pneumatic) for controlling the valve opening. This includes Electro-pneumatic positioners, air regulators, booster relays etc.

 The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas,

steam, water, or chemical compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as possible to the desired set point
The control valve assembly typically consists of the valve body,

the internal trim parts, an actuator and a variety of additional valve accessories, which can include positioners, transducers, supply pressure regulators, manual operators, snubbers, or limit switches

Valves Bodies

The control valve regulates the rate of fluid flow as the position of the valve plug or disk is changed by force from the actuator. To do this, the valve must: Be Leak proof(glands, gaskets) Have adequate capacity for the intended service; Be capable of withstanding the erosive, corrosive, and temperature influences of the process Incorporate appropriate end connections to mate with adjacent pipelines and actuator attachment means to permit transmission of actuator thrust to the valve plug stem or rotary shaft

LINEAR TYPE VALVES

Globe valves

Two differently shaped Globe Valves

Flow through a single seat, two port Globe Valve

 Used for throttling purposes where positive shutoff is required, in sizes up to 6 in Have a replaceable plug and seat,and a metal-to-

metal seal Easy replacement of the plug and seat makes repair simple and inexpensive. Pressure loss through a globe valve is high Can be used at high pressures, but the higher the pressure, the more difficult the task of sealing around the stem and the greater the torque required to operate it.

Angle valves
Angle

valves in which the fluid makes a 90 turn as it passes through the valve. Pressure loss through an angle valve is less than that through a conventional globe valve.

Y-valves
Y-valves that have a

reduced pressure drop because the flow passes straight through the valve.

Needle valves
Needle valves are functionally

similar to globes Permit a finer adjustment of flow The end of the stem is pointed like a needle and fits accurately into the needle seat The seat is typically metal Are used for very small, accurately adjustable flows

Cock, or plug, valves

Cock, or plug, valves are the oldest type of valve and still enjoy wide use for on-off service. Plug valves are made with both tapered and cylindrical plugs and in lubricated and non lubricated models. The early forms of the cock valve used metal-to-metal, non-lubricated seals. Plug valves of this type are still used, but problems of sticking and galling limit their usefulness. These difficulties were largely overcome by the development of the lubricatedplug valve. In this valve, the lubricant is forced into the valve under pressure and is extruded between the plug face and the seat in the body. The lubricant prevents leakage between the plug and body, reduces friction and wear between the surfaces when the plug is turned, and also lifts the plug slightly to reduce the torque required to operate the valve.

GATE VALVES
Gate valves are widely used

in industrial piping
Used as stop valves - to fully

shut off or fully turn on flow the only job for which gate valves are recommended.

 Valve flow characteristic curves are usually shown by plotting CV versus

Valve flow characteristic

valve stem travel

The CV at each increment of stem travel is determined by measuring the

fluid flow rate with a DP of 1 psi appearing across the valve.

Flow characteristics fall into three major categories:
1. 2. 3.

Quick opening Linear Equal percentage

Reciprocating Valve flow characteristics

Flow Characterization

100 80
Output

60 40 20 0 0 20 40
Input

60

80

100

Quick opening valves Application Quick opening valves are used primarily in an ON/OFF manner in situations where rapid responses are required. A typical application of quick opening valves is in shutdown systems where response time is critical.

A Typical Linear Valve Plug Flow Characteristic of Linear Valve

A typical linear valve plug is shown in Figure 10(a). Figure 10(b) shows

the flow characteristic of a linear valve plug. To facilitate automatic control, a linear relationship between flow rate and valve travel is desirable. From Figure 10(b) it can be seen that for a linear valve plug, CV and valve travel exhibit a linear relationship. LINEAR VALVE APPLICATION Linear globe valves are used as feed valves to throttle the discharge of the pressurizing pumps.

Equal Percentage Globe Valves

An equal percentage valve gets its name because for

equal increments in valve plug travel, the valve coefficient will change by the same predetermined percentage over its original value. Equal percentage valves are used in situations where there is a highly varying pressure drop (DP) across the valve.

Valve Actuators
A control valve actuator is a device which is used to drive the

valve stem. Some type of actuator is necessary to allow for the positioning of a valve. Actuators vary from simple manual hand wheels to relatively complex electrical and hydraulic manipulators. Valve actuators are selected based upon a number of factors including torque necessary to operate the valve and the need for automatic actuation. Types of actuators include manual hand wheel, manual lever, electrical motor, pneumatic, solenoid, hydraulic piston, and self-actuated. All actuators except manual hand wheel and lever are adaptable to automatic actuation.

Manual Gear Head

Fixed Hand wheel

Hammer Hand wheel

 The most common valve actuator is the pneumatic

diaphragm actuator. It is simple in construction and very reliable. It operates by the injection of an air signal into the diaphragm housing.

 The diaphragm housing is made up of two sections

separated by a flexible diaphragm. The air pressure applied on the diaphragm develops a working force. This force is transmitted to the actuator stem via the diaphragm plate, which is a supportive metal disk attached to the diaphragm. The actuator spring provides a restoring force which positions and returns the actuator stem. The travel indicator (a pointer attached near the stem connector) indicates the valve travel on the indicator scale. The actuator is supported rigidly on the valve bonnet assembly by the yoke. The actuator stem is connected by the stem connector to the valve plug stem.

 The reverse acting actuator will push the actuator

stem upwards as signal air is applied to the bottom of the diaphragm.

Valve Positioners
Pneumatic valve positioners are the most commonly

used valve accessories. A valve positioner is a device which will accurately position a control valve in accordance with the pneumatic control signal. The control signal is routed to the positioner where comparison of the valve position (actual) to the control signal (desired) is used to develop an output pneumatic signal which operates the valve actuator.

 The positioner compares the control signal (the

requested valve position) with the actual valve position through the mechanical feedback linkage. If the valve position is incorrect; the positioner will either load or exhaust air from the valve actuator until the correct valve position is obtained. A positioner requires both a control signal and an instrument supply air for normal operation. Most positioners come equipped with three gauges to indicate supply air pressure, control signal pressure and actuator diaphragm signal (output) air pressure.

 Pneumatically operated valves depend on a positioner to take an input signal

from a process controller and convert it to valve travel. Pneumatic Positionersa pneumatic signal (usually 3-15 psig) is supplied to the positioner. The positioner translates this to a required valve position and supplies the valve actuator with the required air pressure to move the valve to the correct position. Analog I/P Positionerthis positioner performs the same function as the one above, but uses electrical current (usually 4-20 mA) instead of air as the input signal. Digital Controlleralthough this instrument functions very much as the Analog I/P described above, it differs in that the electronic signal conversion is digital rather than analog. The digital products cover three categories. Digital Non-Communicatinga current signal (4-20 mA) is supplied to the positioner, which both powers the electronics and controls the output. HARTthis is the same as the digital non-communicating but is also capable of two-way digital communication over the same wires used for the analog signal. Fieldbusthis type receives digitally based signals and positions the valve using digital electronic circuitry coupled to mechanical components. An alldigital control signal replaces the analog control signal. Additionally, two-way digital communication is possible over the same wires. Fieldbus technologies benefit the end user by enabling improved control architecture, product capability and reduced wiring.

Advantages of the valve positioner include: Minimizing the effect of friction, hysteresis and dead band on the valve stem. With a high pressure system, tighter valve stem packing is needed to prevent leakage and a high frictional force is generated. With a positioner valve stem movements of as little as 25 micro meters are possible. Enables signal range change. A positioner can amplify the incoming control signal when a greater actuating force is needed. A 20-100 kPa control signal can be amplified to 40-200 kPa before being applied to the actuator. Allows signal reversal. A positioner can operate in either direct or reverse acting mode. For example, in reverse acting mode, an increase in control signal pressure causes a decrease in positioner output air pressure. For example, in reverse mode, a 100 - 20 kPa actuator signal would correspond to a 20 - 100 kPa control signal from the I/P transducer. Increases the speed of response of the actuator. The speed of response of the valve actuator depends on:

The actuator volume, and The flow rate of the control signal air.

The positioner has a larger volumetric output capacity than other pneumatic devices, say an I/P transducer (typically 40 - 50 cfm vs. 4 - 5 cfm). With a positioner, quicker fill of the actuator and therefore faster valve speed of response can be achieved. Allows valve flow characteristic to be changed. Most valve positioners employ a rotating cam in the feedback system. This cam can be changed to simulate different valve flow characteristics. A linear globe valve can be used to respond in an equal percentage manner. Allows split range operation. In a split range control loop, one controller is used to drive two control valves.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR KIND ATTENTION.