Fatigue Failure

It has been recognized that a metal subjected to a repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail at a stress much lower than that required to cause failure on a single application of load. Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue failures.
Fatigue failure is characterized by three stages

Crack Initiation
Crack Propagation Final Fracture
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Jack hammer component, shows no yielding before fracture.

Crack initiation site

Fracture zone Propagation zone, striation

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VW crank shaft fatigue failure due to cyclic bending and torsional stresses

Propagation zone, striations

Crack initiation site

Fracture area

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928 Porsche timing pulley

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Crack started at the fillet

Fracture surface of a failed bolt. The fracture surface exhibited beach marks, which is characteristic of a fatigue failure.

1.0-in. diameter steel pins from agricultural equipment. Material; AISI/SAE 4140 low allow carbon steel

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bicycle crank spider arm

This long term fatigue crack in a high quality component took a considerable time to nucleate from a machining mark between the spider arms on this highly stressed surface. However once initiated propagation was rapid and accelerating as shown in the increased spacing of the 'beach marks' on the surface caused by the advancing fatigue crack.
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Crank shaft

Gear tooth failure

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Hawaii, Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue was the cause of the failure.

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Fracture Surface Characteristics Mode of fracture Ductile Typical surface characteristics Cup and Cone Dimples Dull Surface Inclusion at the bottom of the dimple Shiny Grain Boundary cracking Shiny Cleavage fractures Flat Beachmarks Striations (SEM) Initiation sites Propagation zone Final fracture zone
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Brittle Intergranular

Brittle Transgranular

Fatigue

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Fatigue Failure Type of Fluctuating Stresses a = max max = - min

Alternating stress

a =

max min
2

min = 0 a = m = max / 2

Mean stress

m
=
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max + min
2

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Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore rotating beam machine. The surface is polished in the axial direction. A constant bending load is applied.

Typical testing apparatus, pure bending

Motor

Load

Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

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Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore rotating beam machine. The surface is polished in the axial direction. A constant bending load is applied. Typical testing apparatus, pure bending

Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

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Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

Test specimen geometry for R.R. Moore rotating beam machine. The surface is polished in the axial direction. A constant bending load is applied. Typical testing apparatus, pure bending

Rotating beam machine applies fully reverse bending stress

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Fatigue Failure, S-N Curve

N < 103 N > 103

Finite life

Infinite life

Se

= endurance limit of the specimen Se

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Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength

Steel Steel = Se 0.5Sut 100 ksi

Sut 200 ksi (1400 MPa)

Sut > 200 ksi

700 MPa Sut > 1400 MPa

Cast iron

Cast iron

0.4Sut
= Se 24 ksi

Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa) Sut 60 ksi

160 MPa Sut < 400 MPa

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Relationship Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Strength

Aluminum
Aluminum alloys

= Se

0.4Sut 19 ksi

Sut < 48 ksi (330 MPa)

Sut 48 ksi

130 MPa Sut 330 MPa For N = 5x108 cycle

Copper alloys
Copper alloys

= Se

0.4Sut 14 ksi

Sut < 40 ksi (280 MPa)

Sut 40 ksi

100 MPa Sut 280 MPa For N = 5x108 cycle

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

For materials exhibiting a knee in the S-N curve at 106 cycles S = endurance limit of the specimen (infinite life > 106)
e

Se = endurance limit of the actual component (infinite life > 106)

S
103

Se
106

For materials that do not exhibit a knee in the S-N curve, the infinite life taken at 5x108 cycles

Sf = fatigue strength of the specimen (infinite life > 5x108) Sf = fatigue strength of the actual component (infinite life > 5x108)
S
103

Sf
5x108 Machine Design

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se)
or

Sf = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Sf)

(page 326, Nortons 3rd ed.)

Load factor, Cload

Pure bending Pure axial Pure torsion

Cload = 1 Cload = 0.7 Cload = 1 if von Mises stress is used, use 0.577 if von Mises stress is NOT used. Cload = 1

Combined loading

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Size factor, Csize
(p. 327, Nortons 3rd ed.)

Larger parts fail at lower stresses than smaller parts. This is mainly due to the higher probability of flaws being present in larger components.

For rotating solid round cross section

d 0.3 in. (8 mm)

0.3 in. < d 10 in. 8 mm < d 250 mm

Csize = 1 Csize = .869(d)-0.097 Csize = 1.189(d)-0.097

If the component is larger than 10 in., use Csize = .6

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

For non rotating components, use the 95% area approach to calculate the equivalent diameter. Then use this equivalent diameter in the previous equations to calculate the size factor. A95 = (/4)[d2 (.95d)2] = .0766 d2

d95 = .95d

dequiv = (

A95 0.0766

)1/2

Solid or hollow non-rotating parts

Rectangular parts

dequiv = .37d
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dequiv = .808 (bh)1/2

Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

I beams and C channels

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

surface factor, Csurf
(p. 328-9, Nortons 3rd ed.)

The rotating beam test specimen has a polished surface. Most components do not have a polished surface. Scratches and imperfections on the surface act like a stress raisers and reduce the fatigue life of a part. Use either the graph or the equation with the table shown below.

Csurf = A (Sut)b

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Temperature factor, Ctemp
(p.331, Nortons 3rd ed.)

High temperatures reduce the fatigue life of a component. For accurate results, use an environmental chamber and obtain the endurance limit experimentally at the desired temperature. For operating temperature below 450 oC (840 oF) the temperature factor should be taken as one.

Ctemp = 1

for T 450 oC (840 oF)

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Correction Factors for Specimens Endurance Limit

Reliability factor, Crel (p. 331, Nortons 3rd ed.)
The reliability correction factor accounts for the scatter and uncertainty of material properties (endurance limit).

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Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf

Experimental data shows that the actual stress concentration factor is not as high as indicated by the theoretical value, Kt. The stress concentration factor seems to be sensitive to the notch radius and the ultimate strength of the material. Notch sensitivity factor Fatigue stress Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q concentration factor rd
(p. 340, Nortons 3 ed.)

Steel

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Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor, Kf for Aluminum

(p. 341, Nortons 3rd ed.)

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Design process Fully Reversed Loading for Infinite Life

Determine the maximum alternating applied stress (a ) in terms of the size and cross sectional profile Select material Sy, Sut Choose a safety factor n Determine all modifying factors and calculate the endurance limit of the component Se Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf Use the design equation to calculate the size

Se Kf a = n
Investigate different cross sections (profiles), optimize for size or weight

You may also assume a profile and size, calculate the alternating stress and determine the safety factor. Iterate until you obtain the desired safety factor
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Design for Finite Life

Sn = a (N)b equation of the fatigue line

A S
103

A B Se
106

S Sf N
103

B
5x108

Point A

Sn = .9Sut
N = 10
3

Point A

Sn = .9Sut
N = 103

Point B

Sn = Se
N = 10
6

Point B
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Sn = Sf
N = 5x108

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Design for Finite Life

Sn = a (N)b
log Sn = log a + b log N Apply boundary conditions for point A and B to find the two constants a and b
3

log .9Sut = log a + b log 10 log Se = log a + b log 106

a=

(.9Sut) Se
1 3

b=

log

.9Sut Se

Sn = Se ( 106 )
Calculate Sn

Se log ( .9S ) ut

and replace Se in the design equation

Kf a =

Sn n

Design equation

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The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life

Mean stress exist if the loading is of a repeating or fluctuating type.

Mean stress is not zero

Gerber curve Alternating stress Se Goodman line

Soderberg line
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Sy Mean stress

Sut

The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

a
Sy Yield line

Alternating stress

Se Goodman line Safe zone

C

Sy
Mean stress

Sut

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The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

a
Sy Yield line

Se Goodman line

Safe zone
- m - Syc

Safe zone

Sy

Sut

+ m

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The Effect of Mean Stress on Fatigue Life Modified Goodman Diagram

Fatigue,

m 0

Fatigue,

m > 0
Sut
=
= 1 1 Infinite life

a
Se

+ +

m m
Sut

nf
Finite life Yield

a = n f
Yield
Se Syc

Se

a
Sn

a + m = n y
- m

Safe zone
- Syc

Safe zone

a + m = n y
Sy Sut + m

Sy

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Applying Stress Concentration factor to Alternating and Mean Components of Stress

Determine the fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf, apply directly to
the alternating stress Kf a

If Kf max < Sy then there is no yielding at the notch, use Kfm = Kf

and multiply the mean stress by Kfm Kfm m If Kf max > Sy then there is local yielding at the notch, material at the

notch is strain-hardened. The effect of stress concentration is reduced.

Calculate the stress concentration factor for the mean stress using the following equation,

Kfm =

Sy

m
1

Kf a

Fatigue design equation Kf a Kfmm = +

Se

Sut

nf

Infinite life

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Combined Loading
All four components of stress exist,

xa xm

alternating component of normal stress

mean component of normal stress alternating component of shear stress mean component of shear stress

xya xym

Calculate the alternating and mean principal stresses,

1 a , 2 a = ( x a /2 ) 1m, 2m = (xm /2)

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(xa /2)2 + (xya)2 (xm /2)2 + (xym)2

Combined Loading
Calculate the alternating and mean von Mises stresses,
2 1/2 a = (12 + ) a 2a 1a 2a 2 1/2 m = (12m + 2 ) m 1m 2m

Fatigue design equation

a
Se

m
Sut

nf

Infinite life

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Machine Design

Design Example
A rotating shaft is carrying 10,000 lb force as shown. The shaft is made of steel with 12 d A

10,000 lb. 6 6 D = 1.5d

Sut = 120 ksi and Sy = 90 ksi. The shaft is rotating at 1150 rpm and has a machine finish surface. Determine the diameter, d, for 75 minutes life. Use safety factor of 1.6 and 50% reliability.
Calculate the support forces,

R1 r (fillet radius) = .1d

R2

R1 = 2500, R2 = 7500 lb. MA = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in

The critical location is at the fillet, Calculate the alternating stress,

a =

Mc

32M

= 3

305577

m = 0

Determine the stress concentration factor d D = 1.5 d

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r = .1

Kt = 1.7

Machine Design

Design Example
Assume d = 1.0 in

Using r = .1 and Sut = 120 ksi, q (notch sensitivity) = .85

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.7 1) = 1.6

Calculate the endurance limit

Cload = 1 (pure bending)

Crel = 1 (50% rel.) Ctemp= 1 (room temp)

Csurf = A (Sut)b = 2.7(120)
0.3 in. < d 10 in.
-.265

= .759

Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(1)-0.097 = .869

ksi

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.759)(.869)(.5x120) = 39.57

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Design Example
Design life, N = 1150 x 75 = 86250 cycles Se log ( .9S ) 86250 N ut Sn = 39.57 ( 6 Sn = Se ( 6 )
10 10

log ( .9x120 )
= 56.5 ksi

39.57

a =

305577

d3

= 305.577 ksi

n=

Sn Kfa

56.5 1.6x305.577

= .116 < 1.6

So d = 1.0 in. is too small

Assume d = 2.5 in
All factors remain the same except the size factor and notch sensitivity.

Using r = .25 and Sut = 120 ksi, q (notch sensitivity) = .9

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .9(1.7 1) = 1.63

Csize = .869(d)-0.097 = .869(2.5)-0.097 = .795

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Se = 36.2 ksi

Design Example
Se = 36.2 ksi

Sn = 36.20 (

log ( .9x120 ) 86250

106

36.2

= 53.35 ksi

a =

305577

(2.5)

= 19.55 ksi

n=

Kfa

Sn

53.35 1.63x19.55

= 1.67 1.6

d = 2.5 in.

Check yielding

n=

Sy 90 = 2.8 > 1.6 okay = Kfmax 1.63x19.55

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Design Example Observations

n= Sn Kfa
= 56.5 1.6x305.577 = .116 < 1.6 d R1 r (fillet radius) = .1d A 12 6

6
D = 1.5d R2 = 7500

So d = 1.0 in. is too small

Calculate an approximate diameter

n=

Sn Kfa

56.5

1.6x305.577/d

= 1.6

d = 2.4 in.

So, your next guess should be between 2.25 to 2.5

Check the location of maximum moment for possible failure Mmax (under the load) = 7500 x 6 = 45,000 lb-in

MA (at the fillet) = 2500 x 12 = 30,000 lb-in

But, applying the fatigue stress conc. Factor of 1.63, Kf MA = 1.63x30,000 = 48,900 > 45,000
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Example
A section of a component is shown. The material is steel with Sut = 620 MPa and a fully corrected endurance limit of Se = 180 MPa. The applied axial load varies from 2,000 to 10,000 N. Use modified Goodman diagram and find the safety factor at the fillet A, groove B and hole C. Which location is likely to fail first? Use Kfm = 1 Pa = (Pmax Pmin) / 2 = 4000 N Pm = (Pmax + Pmin) / 2 = 6000 N

Fillet

d D 35 = = 1.4 d 25

4 = .16 25

Kt = 1.76

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Example
Using r = 4 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .85
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .85(1.76 1) = 1.65 Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 1.65 = 52.8 MPa K = a = f A 25x5 Pm 6000 = 48 MPa = m = A 25x5 Fatigue design equation

Se

Sut

Infinite life

52.8 48 = + 180 620

n = 2.7

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Hole d 5 = = .143 Kt = 2.6 w 35

Example

Using r = 2.5 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .82

Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .82(2.6 1) = 2.3 Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 = 61.33 MPa = 2.3 a = Kf A (35-5)5 Pm 6000 = 40 MPa = m = A 30x5 61.33 40 = + 180 620 1

n = 2.5

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Example
Groove

d Kt = 2.33 D 35 = = 1.2 d 29 Using r = 3 and Sut = 620 MPa, q (notch sensitivity) = .83
Kf = 1 + (Kt 1)q = 1 + .83(2.33 1) = 2.1

3 = .103 29

Calculate the alternating and the mean stresses, Pa 4000 = 58.0 MPa = 2.1 a = Kf A (35-6)5

m =

Pm

6000

29x5
1

= 41.4 MPa

58.0 41.4 = + 180 620

n = 2.57

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Example
The figure shows a formed round wire cantilever spring subjected to a varying force F. The wire is made of steel with Sut = 150 ksi. The mounting detail is such that the stress concentration could be neglected. A visual inspection of the spring indicates that the surface finish corresponds closely to a hot-rolled finish. For a reliability of 99%, what number of load applications is likely to cause failure. Fa = (Fmax Fmin) / 2 = 7.5 lb. Fm = (Fmax + Fmin) / 2 = 22.5 lb. Ma = 7.5 x 16 = 120 in - lb Mm = 22.5 x 16 = 360 in - lb = 23178.6 psi

a =

Mc

32Ma

d 3 d
3

32(120)

(.375)
=

c m = M I

32Mm

32(360)

(.375)

= 69536 psi

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Calculate the endurance limit

Example
Csurf = A (Sut)b = 14.4(150)
2

Cload = 1 (pure bending) Ctemp= 1 (room temp) Crel= .814 (99% reliability)

-.718

= .394

A95 = .010462 d (non-rotating round section)

dequiv = A95 / .0766 = .37d = .37 x.375 = .14

dequiv = .14 < .3 Csize = 1.0

Se = Cload Csize Csurf Ctemp Crel (Se) = (.394)(.814)(.5x150) = 24.077 a

Se
+

ksi

m
Sut

23178.6 69536 = + 24077 150000

n = .7 < 1
Finite life

Find Sn, strength for finite number of cycle

a
Sn

m
Sut

=1

23178.6

Sn

69536 =1 150000

Sn = 43207 psi

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Example

Se log ( .9S ) ut

Sn = Se ( 106 )

43207 = 24077

N 106

log ( .9x150 )

24.077

N = 96,000 cycles

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