FLUVIAL PROCESSES

INTODUCTION, DEFINITION, VARIABLES, PROCESSES, LANDFORMS

INTRODUCTION.

Fluvial processes form a comprehensive aspect of external geomorphic processes and play an important role in the hydrological cycle and formation of landforms. In our local environment, the action of rivers and surface waters form central element in our decision-making process, planning and implementation of development projects.

In such situations, our aim is to apply knowledge gained from fluvial processes to address issue that are related to fluvial in order to promote sustainable development and improve our socio-economic conditions, protect our rivers and the environment.

The problem of availability of quality water for drinking and for other uses, flooding and pollution have been major areas of environmental concern globally. many people who are concerned with sustainable management of rivers, some of the answers lie in understanding fluvial processes, and everyone has a role to play, particularly the younger generation like you.

DEFINITON Fluvial originated from the Latin word fluvius meaning river and it involves not only the work of rivers, but also erosion of soils and rocks on hill-slopes and in semiarid environments by running water.

INTERPLAY OF A SET OF FACTORS THAT RESULT IN MARKED CHANGES IN STREAM PROCESSES (VARIABLES): The most significant are: discharge, precipitation, duration, velocity, infiltration,

permeability, and
interception.

Discharge (Q): It is the volume of flow per unit time through a given cross section, and it is the product of average velocity and cross sectional area (Q= V x Width x Depth) Discharge thus defines the drainage of a stream. When discharge increases, erosion and channel enlargement increase;

when discharge decreases, some of the load is dropped

reducing the channel depth and width. The channel of the river or stream is thus linked closely to discharge. If discharge changes, width, depth, and velocity must change also.

Precipitation is highly variable and reflects the amount and intensity of rainfall, snow, and moisture. INTENSITY is the amount of precipitation that falls per unit time on the land surface. It is generally measured by recording the amount of precipitation hourly. Duration: period that precipitation last. In general, storms of usually higher intensity are of short duration and have high reoccurrence intervals, that is, they do not occur as often as storms of low intensity.

Interception: This refers to the process whereby precipitation is intercepted by plants and heavily forested regions most of which is lost by transpiration (diffuse of water vapour into the atmosphere by plants) and evaporation. Interception is very important since it influences the character and rate of discharge and denudation in different climatic zones. Infiltration It is the process where by a significant portion of surface run-off soaks into the soil and stored there temporary. The amount of water that infiltrates the soil depends largely on: Geology of the area: type of rocks, geological structure (joints, bedding plane, orientation, etc). the soil ability to accept water from the surface and permit the water to percolate through the soil The rate of supply of water to the ground surface.

How a River Transports its Load Generally, there are four main ways by which a river transports its load, namely: in dissolved state by traction or dragging in suspended form, and by floatation

The above transport mechanisms are to a large extent influenced by the physical-geographical characteristics of the environment such as climate, geology, soils, nature of landform, drainage characteristics, vegetation, weathering and the impacts of human activities.

Dissolved state. This is sediment in solution (ionic) as a result of chemicals dissolved in water where transport of load requires no mechanical energy. The largest percentage of dissolved load is contributed by chemical weathering of slope, by tributary runoff, and by groundwater effluent. Traction. This involves the dragging of the bed load of pebbles along its bed. Coarse fraction rolls along the bed or moves in long low path by saltation and it common where a load is delivered to the channel with high velocities (flood flow or steep channels) In suspended form Light sediments such as silt and mud in the water may be carried mechanically in suspension by streams. It accounts for most streams

sediments

and most of the work performed by streams, because light sediments such as silt and mud in the water are always available. Floatation load depends upon rafting phenomena, which, although minor and perhaps insignificant for most rivers, may locally be important. Rock fragment and minerals grains of appropriate sizes may be rafted by surface tension, bubbles, ice, vegetation etc. These are closely related to geological, hydrological conditions and slope geometry (concave, convex, straight, braided and slopes).

OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE FLUVIAL PROCESSES. the effects of slopes the effects of load the effects of topography the influence of climate. SLOPE. Generally, velocity is directly proportional to slope and increases as slope increases. An increase in velocity due to and increase in slope has a greater effect on transportation of bed load than does an increase in velocity due to an increase in discharge. The stability of the slope to withstand erosion is, to greater extent, determined by the geology of the area.

load effect- load is used as a tool to erode by streams. Streams continually wear down the land and transport an immense amount of rock detritus to the oceans annually. Relief determines gravitational forces and potential energy of slopes; denudation rates increases exponentially with increase in relief.

The lithology (rock) of a slope material establishes the physical nature of detritus (sediments) produced by weathering and erosion. For example, erosion of columnarjointed basalt typically yields hard, dense, physically durable boulders and cobbles, whereas shale weathers and erodes to form small, easily disintegrated particles.

Climate is important for two reasons: The amount and distribution of precipitation affects weathering and erosion rates. Vegetation is highly dependent on climate; Type of vegetation, its distribution pattern, its absence or presence affects the amount of precipitation, run off, etc.

FLUVIAL EROSION, TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION.

A rivers energy is the main driving force in fluvial processes. Rivers are able to do work on the landscape because the energy stored in the water, (potential energy), is transformed ,as it flows downhill owing to gravity, into the kinetic energy used for erosion, transport, and deposition.
Two main patterns of flow: laminar and turbulent. Laminar flow is an even, horizontal movement, in which the water flows in clearly defined layers over sediment on the bed without moving it. Laminar flow is considered to exist in rivers more in theory than in reality and is usually discounted.

Turbulent flow, the dominant pattern, consists of a series of erratic vertical and horizontal eddies moving in a downstream direction.

Turbulence varies in direct relation to the velocity of flow, which in turn is linked to the amount of kinetic energy available. The greater the kinetic energy, the greater the velocity (and vice versa), and the greater the turbulence of flow.

Erosional Processes

Erosion is the means by which a river deepens, widens, and lengthens its channel. In this section, I shall discuss the following main erosional processes: Hydraulic action is the wearing away of the bed and banks of a river by the sheer weight of water hauled against them. This particularly is effective in fast flowing rivers. It occurs because the energy of the flowing water hitting the boundaries of the river channel, especially the banks, is sufficient to pry away fragments of the bedrock. This hydraulic shearing force is caused by the fact that water is forced into cracks in the bedrock. The air in the cracks is compressed and, as a result, pressure increases.

Over time this weakens the rock and fragments break away. An extreme form of hydraulic action, associated with waterfalls and rapids, is cavitation. It is caused by air bubbles collapsing. The resulting shock waves hit and weaken the channel boundaries, and may eventually cause the banks to collapse. Hydraulic action is measured in terms of shear force per unit area, which is termed the boundary shear stress. Corrasion is the wearing away of the bed and the banks, by a rivers load. The efficacy of flowing water in erosion is greatly assisted by the battering effect against the bedrock of the channel of sediment already in motion, a process called corrasion.

Corrasion is responsible for much of the down-cutting that creates and deepens the channel, and is most effective in times of flood.

A particular form, pot-holing, occurs when pebbles or other sediment are trapped in hollows in the bed and are swirled around by turbulent eddies, scouring out and deepening the depression.

LOAD TRANSPORT The total load can be subdivided on the basis of its origin, into three categories: dissolved load - it is the sediment load derived from corrosion and chemical weathering. wash load is the sediment washed into the channel by overland flow. It is much finer than that found on the channel bed. bed-material load comprises sediment eroded from the channel boundaries and is similar in size to the bed material

Deposition The subject of deposition is related to previous sections that we have discussed. Where the speed and boundary shear stress decrease, the river no longer has the competence to continue carrying its entire load and begins to deposit it. Deposition occurs in various situations: some are related to characteristic changes in the channel; others are the result of specific local conditions. Examples of the former (characteristic changes in the channel) include: deposition where a river broadens out, usually in its middle and lower course. This occurs, assuming the discharge remains constant, because more of the water comes into contact with the channel boundaries,

deposition where a river broadens out, usually in its middle and lower course. This occurs, assuming the discharge remains constant, because more of the water comes into contact with the channel boundaries, increasing friction and thus reducing velocity to the critical-fall threshold for certain particle sizes. Velocity is also decreased on the inside of river bends, or meanders, where the water is shallowest, and where a river enters the sea or a lake. Localized causes of deposition include: a sudden decrease in slope, such as below a waterfall or where a river emerges from a mountain zone on to a plain, and a sudden increase in load, such as after a landslide .

Fig. 1. Relationship between flow velocity and particle size for erosion, transportation, and deposition (After Hjustrom, 1935)

The Development of a River Valley A valley takes form through the operation of three interrelated processes: valley deepening valley widening, and valley lengthening

The threshold of erosion curve in fig. 1 indicates that the velocity require d to move grains between 0.1 mm and 1.0 mm decrease until about 0.1 mm and then increases again for particles less than 0.1 mm. The increase in velocities required to move smaller particles is due to greater cohesion between the smaller grains and the diminished surface resistance of the smoother channel bed. The threshold of the deposition curve (as shown in figure 1) illustrates that deposition will take place for velocities below the curve, and for velocities above the curve, grains already in motion would remain in motion. The Hjustrom curve thus explains the relationship between flow velocity and particle size for erosion, transportation, and deposition.

Valley Deepening Most of the processes involved in river valley deepening have already been discussed in previous sections of this unit; therefore I shall be very brief in examining the processes involved in valley development. Valley deepening is effected by several processes. They are: hydraulic action; corrasion or abrasion on the floor of the valley pothole drilling along the valley floor and at the base of waterfalls (by corrasion or abrasion); corrosion; and weathering of the streambed (in the case of an intermittent stream) plus subsequent removal of weathered material by hydraulic action

Valley width is the linear distance between valley sides and is expressed in terms of the cross section of a valley. The upper and outer parts of many valley sides are indefinite and must be delimited (demarcated) arbitrarily. The width of the valley floor is more definitely determinable, and we commonly think of valley width in terms of it widening. Valley widening may be accomplished in a number of ways by: Lateral erosion or planation by the stream in a valley may remove material from the base of the valley side through hydraulic and corrasive action. This results in local oversteepening of the valley side with attendant undercut slopes, which favours slumping of material into the stream. This process may operate during any stage of valley development but is most noticeable during maturity and

Rainwash or sheetwash on valley sides contributes in an important way to valley widening. Gulleying on valley sides is another way by which valley widening is effected. Although more spectacular than sheetwash, it is doubtful of it is as important. Weathering and mass-wasting may contribute to valley widening both directly and indirectly. Some valleys have such steep sides that little mantle rock remains on them. Under such conditions weathering may loosen material which moves directly dowmlope into the stream channels; more commonly weathering acts indirectly through production of mantle rock which then is moved down slope by creep, slump, other types of mass-wasting, and by sheetwash.

Incoming tributaries contribute to valley widening even though t! They are no more than overgrown gullies. Valleys commonly widen noticeably where tributaries join them because the valley wall here is being attacked from two directions.

Valley lengthening may take place in three ways Valleys may be extended by the process of headward erosion. This is particularly significant in the growth of lesser valleys. The most common type of head-ward erosion involves the extension of a ravine by incoming sheet waters with attendant weathering and slumping at the ravine head. A second type of headward erosion is affected by spring sapping. This takes place where a spring emerges at the head of a valley. The overlying rock is undermined by solution and weathering and subsequent slumping above the spring may produce an abrupt valley head

. Valleys may extend headward into or' across swampy areas accompanying filling and drainage of such areas; or after deepening of the valley downstream from the swamp has lowered the water table sufficiently to permit valley incision across it. Valleys may be lengthened through increase in size of their crooks or meanders. As long as a meandering stream is confined by valley walls, increase in its crookedness will augment the valley length. Valleys also may lengthen at their termini. Uplift of the land or lowering of sea or lake level will result in extension of the valley form across the newly exposed land. Streams may be lengthened at their termini by seaward extension of deltas.

Figure 3. The hierarchy of stream ordering is illustrated by this fourthorder watershed

Precipitation is water in the form of rain or snow falling to the ground. Some water returns to the atmosphere by evaporation from the leaves of plants and from the ground, and by transpiration by plants. Except in the most arid environments, precipitation normally exceeds evapotranspiration. The surplus water eventually makes its way through the drainage systemalthough it may be stored first on the surface, in depressions and ponds, or in the soil as soil moisture and groundwater.

Overland flow, which occurs when not all the precipitation can infiltrate the soil, moves quickly to streams and rivers. Infiltrated water moves more slowlyas through flow and interflow in partially saturated soils, and as groundwater flow in saturated soils. Basin channel run-off is the combined result of quickflow (overland flow plus interflow) and baseflow (groundwater flow).