Cellular Respiration

Chapter 9: The Process

Objectives
Understand that cellular respiration is a series of coupled metabolic processes Describe the role of ATP, NAD+ and FAD in coupled reactions Know the start and end products of each reaction Know the kind and quantity of energy produced by each reaction Understand the difference between substratelevel phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

Objectives continued
Understand the process of chemiosmosis Explain how the slide of electrons down the electron transport chain is coupled to the production of ATP by chemiosmosis Describe the fate of pyruvate during fermentation Understand how food molecules other than glucose can be oxidized to make ATP Explain how ATP production is controlled

Overview
C6H1206 + 6O26CO2 +6H20 + ENERGY

Aerobic cellular respiration has 4 steps

Glycolysis
in cytosol

Transition reaction
at mitochondrial membrane

Krebs cycle
in mitochondrial matrix

Electron Transport Chain

at inner membrane of mitochondria

 Start with glucose (C6H1206) End product is 2x Pyruvate 2(C3H4O3) Some steps are endergonic while others are exergonic

Glycolysis

1 First obstacle
make glucose reactive

Increase free energy of glucose by phosphorylation by ATP 2 Rearrange molecule 3 Increase free energy of glucose by phosphorylation with ATP phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme that controls the rate of glycolysis Result in reactive molecule

4 Now that our 6C sugar (fructose 1,6-biphosphate) is ready to react, aldolase cleaves it into 2(3C) molecules that are isomers (what kind) of each other. 5 Isomerase converts the unusable Dihydroxyacetone phosphate into Glyceraldehyde phosphate

6 Each glyceraldehyde phosphate is acted on by the enzyme Triose phosphate dehydrogenase that oxidized the sugar by reducing NAD+ and sequentially adding inorganic phosphate to the sugar 7 A molecule of ATP is made from each 1,3-biphosphoglycerate as the phosphate added in step 6 is transferred to ADP 8 The molecule is reorganized through the relocation of the phosphate group

9 Enolase makes an enol (C=C-O) through the removal of water resulting in an unstable molecule (prone to change) 10 Terminal step in glycolysis results in the formation of Pyruvate as the enzyme Pyruvate kinase transfers the phosphate group of phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP forming ATP

Glycolysis summarized
Glucose converted into 2 pyruvate Energy requiring and energy releasing steps Energy net yield is 2ATP and 2NADH 2 molecules of water are produced Enzymes involved at each step
Kinase: conversion of ATP to ADP or ADP to ATP Dehydrogenase: reduces NAD+ to NADH while oxidizing sugar

Regulated by phosphofructokinase activity (step 3) and the rate of isomer formation of glyceraldehyde phosphate (step 5)

Mitochondria
Transition reaction
at mitochondrial membrane

Krebs cycle
in mitochondrial matrix

Electron Transport Chain

at inner membrane of mitochondria

Transition Reaction

Pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA as it is transported into the mitochondrion from the cytosol NAD+ converted into NADH CO2 produced during reaction

Krebs Cycle
Each molecule of Acetyl- CoA enters the Krebs cycle the 2C of acetyl CoA are exchanged for 2 C in oxaloacetate Each turn of the cycle produces
3 NADH 1FADH2 1ATP 2CO2

1 Acetyl CoA enters the krebs cycle by attaching to a 4 carbon sugar (Oxaloacetate) forming a six carbon sugar (Citrate) 2 An isomer of citrate is created through condensation/hydrolysis reactions resulting in isocitrate 3 Isocitrate loses CO2 forming -ketoglutarate as oxidation of the compound occurs NADH is formed 4 -ketoglutarate (C5) is converted to Succinyl CoA (C4). Along the way, CO2 is released, and NAD+ is reduced

5 Succinyl CoA is converted into Succinate. Reaction starts as inorganic phosphate attaches to Succinyl CoA displacing CoA. The phosphate is picked up by GDP forming GTP. The terminal phosphate of GTP is transferred to ADP forming ATP 6 Succinate is oxidized to Fumarate Reducing FAD to FADH2 7 The addition of H20 to Fumarate produces Malate 8 Oxaloacetate is reformed through the oxidation of Malate. NADH is formed during the process

Summary of Transition Reaction and Krebs cycle

Each glucose that enters Glycolysis is converted into 2 Pyruvate molecules Transition Reaction 1 NADH/pyruvate 1 CO2 /pyruvate Krebs Cycle 3 NADH/ Acetyl CoA 1FADH2 / Acetyl CoA 1ATP / Acetyl CoA 2CO2 / Acetyl CoA

Electron Transport Chain

Electron shuttling proteins are called flavoproteins, iron-sulphur proteins, and cytochromes Each protein in the series is more electronegative than its predecessor

Each NADH enters the electron transport chain with enough free energy to fuel formation of 3 ATP Each FADH2 will yield 2 ATP

ETC
Some electron carriers of the transport chain carry only electrons
Ubiquinone Cytochrome c

Some electron carriers accept and release protons along with electrons

Chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis:coupling of exergonic electron flow down an ETC to endergonic ATP production by the creation of a proton gradient across a membrane (proton-motive force)

ATP Formation
ATP synthase couples inorganic phosphate to ADP as H+ return to the matrix (utilizes potential energy of proton gradient) 1ATP is formed for each H+ diffusing across the membrane

Substrate-level Phosphorylation: ATP production coupled by direct enzymatic transfer of phosphate from an intermediate in catabolism to ADP Oxidative Phosphorylation: ATP production that is coupled to the exergonic transfer of electrons from food to oxygen

Variations of Glycolysis
In the absence of oxygen, liberation of energy can occur through fermentation pathways yielding a max of 2 ATP/glucose Fermentation is similar to glycolysis except that the end product is not pyruvate because of the addition of a few steps necessary to regenerate NAD+

What about the other foods?

Proteins, Carbos and Fats can all be utilized for energy following hydrolysis Amino Acids are converted to intermediates including pyruvate, acetyl CoA, and ketoglutarate Carbos enter glycolysis at the beginning or as Fructose 6 phosphate Fats components
glycerol enters as glyceraldehyde phosphate Fatty acids enter as Acetyl CoA

Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback inhibition
ample product switches off product

Regulation of enzyme activity allosteric regulation of phosphofructokinase

ADP and AMP activate enzyme Citrate inhibits enzyme