ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The Human Body Orientation (Week 1)

Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to

Identify four basic types of tissues (epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular tissues) Describe the biomechanics of homeostatic control systems. Discuss the regulation of body temperature, glucose, and calcium levels in blood as examples of negative feedback.

The Human Body An Orientation

Anatomy study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Physiology study of how the body and its parts work or function

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Anatomy Levels of Study

Gross Anatomy
Large structures

Easily observable

Figure 1.1
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Anatomy Levels of Study

Microscopic Anatomy
Very small structures
Can only be viewed with a microscope

Figure 14.4
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Levels of Structural Organization

Figure 1.1
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The Language of Anatomy

The Language of Anatomy

Special terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding Exact terms are used for:
Position Direction Regions Structures
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Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1
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Orientation and Directional Terms

Table 1.1 (cont)

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Body Landmarks

Anterior

Figure 1.5a
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Body Landmarks

Posterior

Figure 1.5b
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Body Planes

Figure 1.6
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Body Cavities

Figure 1.7
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Abdominopelvic Major Organs

Figure 1.8c
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Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Integumentary Forms the external body covering Protects deeper from injury tissue

Synthesizes vitamin D Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

Figure 1.2a
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Organ System Overview

Skeletal Protects and supports body organs Provides muscle attachment for movement

Site of blood cell formation

Stores minerals
Figure 1.2b
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Organ System Overview

Muscular
Allows locomotion Maintains posture Produces heat

Figure 1.2c
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Organ System Overview

Nervous
Fast-acting control system

Responds to internal and external change

Activates muscles and glands

Figure 1.2d
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Organ System Overview

Endocrine
Secretes regulatory hormones
Growth Reproduction

Metabolism
Figure 1.2e
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Organ System Overview

Cardiovascular Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart Oxygen

Carbon dioxide
Nutrients Wastes
Figure 1.2f
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Organ System Overview

Lymphatic
Returns fluids to blood vessels Disposes of debris Involved in immunity

Figure 1.2g
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Organ System Overview

Respiratory
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Removes carbon dioxide
Figure 1.2h
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Organ System Overview

Digestive
Breaks down food

Allows for nutrient absorption into blood

Eliminates indigestible material
Figure 1.2i
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Organ System Overview

Urinary

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

Maintains acid base balance Regulation of materials

Water
Electrolytes

Figure 1.2j
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Organ System Overview

Reproductive
Production of offspring

Figure 1.2k
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Microscopic Anatomy

Body Tissues
Cells are specialised for particular functions

Tissues
Groups of cells with similar structure and function Four primary types
Epithelium Connective tissue Nervous tissue Muscle
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Epithelial Tissues
Functions
Protection: Skin & respiratory tract
epitheliums.

Absorption: Small intestine epithelium. Filtration: Kidney epithelium absorbs &

filters.

Secretion: Salivary epithelium.

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Classification of Epithelium

Number of cell layers

Simple one layer
Stratified more than one layer

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Classification of Epithelium

Shape of cells
Squamous flattened

Cuboidal cube-shaped
Columnar column-like

Figure 3.16b
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Simple Epithelium

Figure 3.17a

Simple squamous Single layer of flat cells Usually forms membranes Lines body cavities

Lines lungs and capillaries

Simple squamous epithelium (arrow) lines the glomerulus.
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Simple Epithelium

Figure 3.17b

Simple cuboidal Single layer of cube-like cells Common in glands and their ducts

Forms walls of kidney tubules

Covers the ovaries
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Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in the collecting duct in the kidney.

Simple Epithelium
Simple columnar
Single layer of tall cells Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus Lines digestive tract
Simple columnar epithelium lines the gall bladder
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Figure 3.17c

Simple Epithelium
Figure 3.17d

Pseudostratified Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others Often looks like a double cell layer Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract May function in absorption or secretion
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The pseudostratified columnar epithelium of the trachea is ciliated and has goblet cells.

Stratified Epithelium
Figure 3.17e

Stratified squamous

Cells at the free edge are flattened

Found as a protective covering where friction is common Locations Skin Mouth Esophagus
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Stratified Epithelium
Figure 3.17f

Transitional epithelium Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching Lines organs of the urinary system

Connective Tissue
Functions Binds body tissues together Supports the body Provides protection Extracellular matrix Non-living material that surrounds living cells Forms a packaging tissue around organs to bear weight, protect and support the organ.

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Extracellular Matrix
Two main elements
Ground substance mostly water along with adhesion proteins (attach to fibers) and charged polysaccharide molecules (traps water- gel hard consistency) Fibers Produced by the cells

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Connective Tissue Types

Bone
Composed of: Bone cells in lacunae (cavities) Hard matrix of calcium salts Large numbers of collagen fibers Used to protect and support the body
Figure 3.18a

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Connective Tissue Types

Hyaline cartilage Most common cartilage Composed of: Abundant collagen fibers Rubbery matrix Entire fetal skeleton is hyaline cartilage
Figure 3.18b
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Connective Tissue Types

Fibrocartilage
Highly compressible Example: forms cushion-like discs between vertebrae
Figure 3.18c

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Connective Tissue Types

Dense connective tissue
Main matrix element is collagen fibers Cells are fibroblasts Examples Tendon attach muscle to bone

Ligaments attach bone to bone

Figure 3.18d
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Connective Tissue Types

Adipose tissue

Matrix is a tissue in which fat globules predominate

Many cells contain large lipid deposits

Functions
Insulates the body Protects some organs

Serves as a site of fuel storage

Figure 3.18f
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Muscle Tissue
Function is to produce movement Three types
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscle

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Muscle Tissue Types

Skeletal muscle
Can be controlled voluntarily Cells attach to connective tissue

Cells are striated

Cells have more than one nucleus
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Figure 3.19b

Muscle Tissue Types

Cardiac muscle Found only in the heart Function is to pump blood (involuntary) Cells attached to other cardiac muscle cells at intercalated disks Cells are striated One nucleus per cell
Figure 3.19c

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Muscle Tissue Types

Smooth muscle
Involuntary muscle Surrounds hollow organs

Attached to other smooth muscle cells

No visible striations One nucleus per cell
Figure 3.19a

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Nervous Tissue
Neurons and nerve support cells Function is to send impulses to other areas of the body

Irritability
Conductivity

Figure 3.20
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Tissue Repair
Regeneration Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells Fibrosis Repair by dense fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue) Determination of method Type of tissue damaged

Severity of the injury

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Regeneration of Tissues
Tissues that regenerate easily

Epithelial tissue
Fibrous connective tissue and bone Tissues that regenerate poorly

Skeletal muscle
Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue Cardiac muscle Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
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Homeostasis

Homeostasis

Maintenance of a stable internal environment = a dynamic state of equilibrium

Homeostasis must be maintained for normal body functioning and to sustain life
Homeostatic imbalance a disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease

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Maintaining Homeostasis

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Calcitonin

Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone

Figure 9.9 Pg 310
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Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar

Figure 9.14 Pg 317

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Body Temperature Regulation

Figure 14.21 Pg 489

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Feedback Mechanisms
Negative feedback
Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity

Works like a household thermostat

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Feedback Mechanisms

Positive feedback
Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and birth of a baby

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