Per A Unit Calculations key problem in analyzing power systems is the

large number of transformers.

It

would be very difficult to continually refer impedances to the different sides of the transformers

This problem is avoided by a normalization of all

variables. This normalization is known as per unit analysis.

actual quantity quantity in per unit base value of quantity

Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1f

1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

Pick a 1f VA base for the entire system, SB Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB. Voltage bases are related by transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to neutral. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB Convert actual values to per unit

Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts)

Three Phase Per Unit

1.

Procedure is very similar to 1f except we use a 3f VA base, and use line to line voltage bases

3f Pick a 3f VA base for the entire system, SB 2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage level, VB. Voltages are line to line. 3. Calculate the impedance base

ZB

2 VB , LL 3f SB

( 3 VB , LN )2
f 3S 1 B

2 VB , LN

f S1 B

Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase!

Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB
3f IB 3f f 1f SB 3 S1 S 1f B B IB 3 VB, LL 3 3 VB, LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

Load Representation

Transmission Circuit Calculations

Short Transmission line

In the case of a short transmission line the capacitance and

conductance to earth may be neglected. Leaving only the series resistance and inductance to be taken into consideration. The current entering the line at the sending-end termination is equal to the current leaving at the receiving-end, and this same current flows through all the line sections. The R and L parameters may therefore be regarded as ' lumped ' .

 The equivalent circuit diagram and the vector diagram for a

short line are shown below in which:

Equivalent circuit for a short transmission line

Vector diagram for a short transmission line .

 The currents IS and IR will be equal in magnitude but not in

phase. Since there is a phase-shift of voltage along the line. R is obtained from a knowledge of the line length ,the size of conductor and the specifics resistance of the conductor material ,
while XL is calculated from the conductor spacing and radius

using the formula derived in Chapter 3.

 Referring to the equivalent circuit :

IS IR
V S V R (R jX L )I R V R Z I R

(6.1a )
(6.1b )

Hence, if the receiving-end conditions are known the necessary

sending-end voltage may be calculated .

 It will be noted that previous are phasor equations , a more

approximate method involving scalar quantities is as follows: Referring to the vector diagram,

V SX V R I R R cos fR I R X L sin fR
V SY I R X L cos fR I R R sin fR
V S =[ (V R I R R cos fR I R X L sin fR ) +(I R X L cos fR I R R sin fR ) ]
2 2

12

 However (IR XL) and (IR R) are very much less than VR and the

small voltage is in quadrate with the much larger VSX ,

V S V SX V R I R R cos fR I R X L sin fR
The voltage regulation of the line is given by the rise in voltage

when full loads is removed , or :

V S V R ( R cos fR X L sin fR ) %age voltage regulation IR VR VR

Example A three-phase line delivers 3 MW at 11 KV for a distance of 15 Km . Line loss is 10 % of power delivered , load power factor is 0.8 lagging . frequency is 50 Hz , 1.7 m equilateral spacing of conductors . Calculate the sending-end voltage and regulation . Solution
Receiving-end phase voltage = 11,000 3 6.360 V R

Line current = phase current ( assuming a star connection ) = 3,000 103 3 11 10 0.8
3

197 A

Total line loss =3 I 2 R (in three conductors) 10 = 3, 000 10 3 100

300 10 3 R 3 197 2 2.58 ohms
Assuming that the conductors are manufactured from copper

having a resistance of 0.0137 ohms per meter for a crosssectional area of 1 mm2 , the conductor cross-section is 80 mm2 corresponding to a radius of 5 mm .

1 d Inductance =L (1 4 logc ) 107 2 r

H / metre

X L L length 1 1.7 10 7 3 = 314 (1 4 logc ) 10 15 10 2 5 =5.75 ohms

3

 V S V R I R R cos fR I R X L sin fR = 6,350 + ( 197 2.58 0.8) + ( 197 5.75 0.6) = 6,350 + 1057 = 7,407 V per phase = 12,780 V line

( R cos fR X L sin fR ) V S V R Regulation =I R = VR VR 1,057 = 16.7 % 6,350