HYPOTHESIS TESTING FOR DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS AND BETWEEN PROPORTIONS

ASSUMPTIONS

Selecting an appropriate test for analysing hypotheses of difference depends on a number of important assumptions particularly relating to parametric and non-parametric assumptions

ASSUMPTIONS :
PARAMETRIC VERSUS NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS Parametric tests
Tests based on assumptions about population distributions and parameters

The assumptions for parametric tests

interval or ratio level data (SPSS Scale data) normal distribution or closely so homogeneity of variance - the variance (standard deviation squared) should be similar in each group samples randomly drawn from the population

Non-Parametric Tests
Tests that make no assumptions about population parameters or distributions

Designs
Hypotheses of differences can involve different research designs Independent Groups or Between Groups Design
Two independent samples are selected randomly and compared often in a control versus experimental contrast.

Repeated Measures Design

One sample is measured in both conditions a before and after approach.

Paired or Matched Samples Design

Individuals, units or observations are matched as pairs on one or more variables and allocated at random one to each sample. Different forms of the t test and ANOVA exist for these designs

t -TEST
t Tests are parametric tests and assume normal distribution or approximately so, random selection of sample elements, homogeneity of variance or approximately so and scale data measurement.

Types of t Test
Three main types of t test exist: 1. The one sample t test

2. The independent group t test between two separate random samples 3. The repeated (or paired) measures t test between two testings of the same sample or between two paired samples

THE ONE SAMPLE t TEST : TESTING HYPOTHESES FOR SINGLE SAMPLES

t = sample mean population mean
estimated standard error of mean
(derived from sample)

(notice similarity to Z. t = Z when sample size is

large) tests the null hypothesis that the mean of a particular sample differs from the mean of the population only by chance

One Sample T testExample from SPSS

1. Enter data as a single variable (here as runs) 2. Analyze > Compare Means > One-Sample t-test (normally we use more than 5 scores)

Example using SPSS

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Enter the variable (in this case runs) into the Test Variables box. Enter the hypothesized population mean into the TEST VALUE box. Click options Enter 95% as the Confidence Interval. Click CONTINUE and OK

Example using SPSS

8. The calculated probability (Sig. (2-tailed)) is .257 which is greater than .05 So the result is not significant. t = 1.319, p = .257 so your mean of 7.4 could have come from a distribution with a population mean of 5.7
One-Sample Statistics N RUNS 5 Mean 7.40 Std. Deviation 2.881 Std. Error Mean 1.288

One-Sample Test Test Value = 5.7 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -1.88 5.28

RUNS

t 1.319

df 4

Sig. (2-tailed) .257

Mean Difference 1.70

Comparing Means With t Tests

More frequently we want to compare two sample means. There are two types of such comparisons. 1. Where we have two means which are calculated from two different samples (the populations are independent). e.g. if we wanted to compare attitudes of males with those of females towards some issue and determine whether one gender was more positive than the other a two-sample ttest may be used here. 2. Where we have two means which are calculated from the same sample when we have measured the variable at two different times. E.g. Change in attitude of the whole group over time, a Repeated Measures (Paired Difference) ttest may be used.

Independent Groups t Test. Between Groups Design

The Independent Groups t test is used to determine whether two random samples are likely to come from the same population. If there is a statistically significant difference between them then the null hypothesis that their sample means are simply two chance variations around a population mean is rejected. Often used in the experimental versus control group set-up the Between Subjects design.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INDEPENDENT GROUPS t TEST

measurements are on interval scale subjects are randomly selected from a defined population the variances of the scores for the two samples or occasions should be approximately equal (homogeneity) the population from which the samples have been drawn is normally distributed.

Example of Independent t test

Suppose we want to compare two parallel classes of students studying Tax Law. At the beginning of the year, students were randomly assigned to each class. Each class is taught using a different method; one by usual face-to face teaching ; the other by individual study using a computerized module presentation. After 6 months, we test whether performance (on a test with a maximum value of 20) varies between the two classes (two-tailed non-directional test). For alpha = .05

SPSS Example of Independent t test

1. 2. Enter your dependent variable (Tax Law test score) as a single variable. (usually we use at least 20 scores) Enter group membership (here class) as a second variable.

SPSS Example of Independent t test

3. 4. Analyze > Compare Means > Independent-Samples t-test Enter your dependent variable (score) in the TEST VARIABLES box, and your grouping variable (class) in the GROUPING VARIABLE box. Click DEFINE GROUPS

5.

SPSS Example of Independent t test

5. 6. 7. Enter the codes you used to define your two groups (here 1 and 2). Click Continue Click OK

SPSS Example of Independent t test

8. Interpret: The mean for Class1 = 7.40, for Class2 = 11.80, d.f. = 8, t8 = -2.63. The calculated probability for such a mean difference = .030, which is less than the alpha of .05, and so is significant. 9. So we conclude that the performance of the two classes is significantly different, t8 = -2.63, p < .05, with class two doing significantly Mean difference better.
Levines test suggests homogeneity of variance assumption OK
Group Statistics CLASS 1 2 N 5 5 Mean 7.40 11.80 Std. Deviation 2.881 2.387 Std. Error Mean 1.288 1.068

being tested

SCORE

Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -8.259 -8.282 -.541 -.518

F SCORE Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed .379

Sig. .555

t -2.630 -2.630

df 8 7.733

Sig. (2-tailed) .030 .031

Mean Difference -4.40 -4.40

Std. Error Difference 1.673 1.673

DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Abbreviated to df The number of values free to vary in a set of values Used to evaluate the obtained statistical value rather then N df usually = N 1 per sample (group)

Repeated Measures or Matched Pairs Design (Parametric test)

Assumptions of the Test
measurements are on interval scale subjects are randomly selected from a defined population the variances of the scores for the two samples or occasions should be approximately equal the population from which the samples have been drawn is normally distributed.

Repeated Measures or Paired Samples SPSS Example

Suppose we want to compare the effects of a training course on performance at two points in time. (a) prior to start of course, and (b) at end of course. Use a two-tailed test at alpha = .05 Enter the data for performance at the beginning of the year as a variable (before). Enter the data for performance at the end of the year as a variable (after). (We would normally use at least 20 pairs of scores)

Repeated Measures or Paired Samples SPSS example.

3. 4. 5. Analyze > Compare Means > Paired-Samples t-test Select both variables (before and after and enter into PAIRED VARIABLES box) Click Options.

Repeated Measures or Paired Samples SPSS example.

6. 7. 8. Select 95% as your confidence interval. Click Continue. Click OK

Repeated Measures or Paired Samples SPSS example.

9. The mean for Before = 8.40, After = 11.80, d.f. = 4, t4 = -13.880, the calculated probability is .000, which is less than the alpha level of .05 and so is significant. 10. So we conclude that the performance of the class has significantly changed from before-training to aftertraining, t4 = -13.88, p < .001.
Paired Samples Statistics Mean 8.40 11.80 N 5 5 Std. Deviation 2.881 2.387 Std. Error Mean 1.288 1.068

We compare this mean difference

Pair 1

BEFORE AFTER

p is highly significant

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -4.08 -2.72

Pair 1

BEFORE - AFTER

Mean -3.40

Std. Deviation .548

Std. Error Mean .245

t -13.880

df 4

Sig. (2-tailed) .000