EXPLORATION

GEOPHYSICS
FOR
GEOLOGIST
AND
ENGINEER
PRIHADI SA / 2002
COURSE INSTRUCTOR
DR. PRIHADI SA.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
GEOELECTRIC
APPLICATIONS
1. GROUND WATER EXPLORATION
2. MINERAL AND BASE METAL EXPLORATION
3. GEOTHERMAL
4. OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION, ESPECIALLY
WHEN SEISMIC REFLECTION IS
TECHNICALLY AND ECONOMICALLY
INEFECTIVE, SUCH AS :
KARSTIVIED CARBONATE COVER
VOLCANIC COVER
ROUGH TOPOGRAPHY
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STANDARD GEOELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
1. GEOPHYSICAL TRANSMITTER
2. MULTI PURPOSE GEOPHYSICAL RECEIVER
DC RESISTIVITY
COMPLEX RESISTIVITY
T E M
( TRANSIENT ELECTROMAGNETIC )
1. POWER GENERATOR
2. TRANSMITTER CONTROLLER FOR CSAMT
3. MAGNETIC SENSOR
4. POROUSPOT ELECTRODES
5. ELECTRODE AMPLIFIER
C S A M T
(CONTROLLED SOURCE AUDIO MAGNETO TELLURIC)
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Ground wire Both wire and small coil Small coil ( ground) Small coil ( air )
Grounded wire
Galvanic Resistivity Magnetometric resistivity ( MMR )
I P Magnetic IP ( MIP )
Inductive C S A M T Some Time-domain EM (TEM) systems
( controlled-source audio
magneto-telluric )
Small loop
Slingram Airborne EM
Horizontal-loop EM Time-domain towed-bird
Vertical-loop EM Helicopter rigid-boom
Tilt-angle method
Ground conductivity meters (GCM)
Some Time-domain EM (TEM) systems
Coincident loop
Borehole systems
Large loop ( long wire )
Large-loop systems
-. Sundberg method
-. Turam
Many TEM systems
Borehole systems
Plane ware
Vertical antenna VLF-resistivity VLF VLF
Natural
-. Geomagnetic
-. Field
Telluric
-. Currents
RECEIVER TYPE
Classification based on Swift ( 1988 ), from John M. Reynolds, 1997, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics
TRANSMITTER TYPE
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TRANSMITTER RECEIVER DAN BOOSTER OYO MCOHM 21
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RECEIVER GDP 16 AND GDP 32 ZONGE
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TRANSMITTER ZONGE
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ELECTRIC GENERATOR, TRANSMITTER ZONGE
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RESISTIVITY
Survey geolistrik dilakukan dengan
menginjeksikan arus listrik ( I ) searah (DC)
ke dalam tanah melalui dua elektroda dan
mengukur responsnya berupa beda
potensial (AV) pada dua elektroda yang lain.
Dengan susunan elektroda tertentu
diperoleh parameter fisis tahanan - jenis
semu (Apparent Resistivity).
Arus listrik sebesar I melalui titik O pada permukaan,
dialirkan ke dalam tanah, yang dianggap sebagai
media homogen dan isotropis. dan mempunyai
tahanan jenis .
Arus listrik tersebut akan menyebar dan membentuk
medan listrik setengah bola ( Gambar ).
Titik yang terletak di dalam media mempunyai
densitas (rapat arus) sebesar :
( )
2
2 r
I
J
t
=
Arus total yang menembus permukaan setengah
bola adalah :
I jds r j = =
}
2
2
t
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Selisih potensial (dv) antara dua kulit yang berjarak
dr adalah :
dv
I
r
dr =
t 2
2
Dengan mengintegrasikan persamaan di atas,
diperoleh harga potensial titik P yang disebabkan
oleh sumber arus O sebesar :
r
I
V
t

2
=
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POTENSIAL OLEH SUMBER ARUS GANDA DI PERMUKAAN
r
1
r
2

POWER
M
Total potensial pada titik M oleh sumber arus C
1
dan C
2
:
( )
2 1
V V V
M
+ =
)
1 1
(
2
2 1
r r
I
V
M
=
t

PRIHADI SA / 2002
TEKNIK PENGUKURAN
Pengukuran tahanan jenis pada umumnya
menggunakan susunan empat elektroda
terminal.
Sepasang elektroda untuk menginjeksikan
arus ke dalam tanah dan sepasang
elektroda lain untuk mengukur beda
potensial yang ditimbulkannya.
Vertical Electrical Sounding atau Drilling
Untuk mendapatkan variasi tahanan jenis
listrik secara vertikal terhadap kedalaman,
dibawah suatu titik dipermukaan.

Electrical Mapping atau Profilling
Untuk mendapatkan distribusi tahanan jenis
listrik secara lateral.
Dua teknik yang umum dipakai :
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CRITERIA WENNER SCHLUMBERGER DIPOLE-DIPOLE SQUARE
Vertical resolution Good Moderate Poor Moderate
Depth penetration Poor Moderate Good Moderate
Suitability to VES Moderate Good Poor Unsuitable
Suitability to CST Good Unsuitable Good Good
Sensitivity to orientation Yes Yes Moderate No
Sensitivity to lateral inhomogenities High Moderate Moderate Yes
Labour intensives Yes Moderate Moderate Yes
(No *) (No*) (No*)
Availability of interpretational aids Good Good Moderate Poor
COMPARASION OF DIPOLE-DIPOLE, SCHLUMBERGER, SQUARE, AND WENNER ELECTRODE ARRAYS
* When using a multicore cable and automated electrode array
from John M. Reynolds, 1997, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics
PRIHADI SA / 2002
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WENNER RESISTIVITY METHOD
Pengambilan data sounding dengan menyusun
elektroda - elektroda arus dan elektroda potensial
dalam satu garis lurus yang mempunyai jarak sama.
Potensial pada P
1
:


V
I
1
2
1
=
|
\

|
.
|

t
1
AM BM
V
I
1
2
1 1
2
=
|
\

|
.
|

t a a

Potensial pada P
2

V
I

2
2
1 1
=
|
\

|
.
|

t AN BN
V
I
2
2
1 1
2
=
t
( )
a a
Beda potensial di P
1
dan P
2
:
AV V V =
1 2
AV
I
=

t 2a
Maka tahanan jenis media adalah :
t =
AV
I
2a
K = 2at
=
AV
I
K
dimana K : Faktor Geometri I : Arus Listrik
AV : Beda Potensial : Tahanan Jenis Semu


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METODA INTERPRETASI
Interpretasi data dilakukan di lapangan dan
di laboratorium. Metoda yang dipakai :
1. PENCOCOKAN KURVA
Menggunakan kurva standar dan kurva bantu.
2. KUMULATIF MOORE
Tahanan jenis semu dibaca, diakumulasikan,
dan diplot terhadap kedalaman. Perubahan
harga tahanan jenis ditunjukkan oleh
perubahan mencolok kemiringan grafik dan
dapat diinterpretasikan sebagai batas lapisan.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
3. CARA BARNES

Diperoleh tahanan jenis sebenarnya untuk
suatu ketebalan tertentu. Susunan lapisan
batuan di bawah permukaan dianggap
merupakan tahanan listrik yang tersusun
paralel.
1 1 1 2
1 1
1
1
R R R
a
R R
L n n
L
n n
= =

tA
Misalkan perhitungan dilakukan terhadap
tahanan jenis sebenarnya untuk tiap
ketebalan 1 m ( tiap bentangan elektroda
@ = 1 m ), kemudian harga - harga ini
diplot terhadap kedalaman dengan
memakai skala satuan.

Apabila harga - harga tersebut
dihubungkan, maka diperoleh kicks yang
akan memberikan gambaran korelasi
batuan di bawah permukaan.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
4. FORWARD MODELING

Dilakukan dengan menggunakan
perangkat lunak geolistrik.
Formula umum untuk perhitungan apparent resistivity :

1
2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2

(

+ t =
A
=
C P P C C P P C
K
I
V
K
a

K = faktor geometri
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Penampang tahanan-jenis semu konfigurasi Wenner sebelum
(atas) dan sesudah (bawah) infiltrasi fluida konduktif.
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Model hasil inversi data konfigurasi Wenner alfa sebelum
(atas) dan sesudah (bawah) infiltrasi fluida konduktif
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The Schlumberger electrical resistivity
investigation consists of horizontal mapping
and vertical sounding.
The aim of the horizontal mapping
investigation is to figure out the apparent
resistivity values distributions, reflecting the
lateral subsurface rock distributions.
In the mapping survey the measured
electrode distance i.e. are AB/2 = 500 m and
AB/2 = 1,000 m, respectively.
SCHLUMBERGER
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
PRIHADI SA / 2002
M
AV
I
A
B
N
2b
2a
MN < 0.2 AB
SCHLUMBERGER
The principles of measurement for
sounding and mapping are the same.
The current electrode distances in
sounding survey are logarithmically
increased.
The spread distance ratio of MN to AB is
kept constant at 5 MN s AB, whenever the
potential electrode (MN) distance is
changed, the overlap measurement for the
same AB/2 distance are carried out.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
The general formula to calculate the
apparent resistivity is,
I
V
K
a
=

4
-
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

L
K
where, L = AB and = MN
where, the geometric factor (K) for the Schlumberger
electrode configuration is expressed as :
PRIHADI SA / 2002
a
n a
I
C
1

C
2

AV
P
1

P
2

POLE - POLE
PRIHADI SA / 2002
P
1

a
n a
AV
P
2

a
I
C
2
C
1

a
DIPOLE-DIPOLE
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MISE--LA-MASSE METHOD

Used two different current electrodes. The charged
current electrode C-1 was located in the casing well,
whereas C-2 was located about 5 km away from C1.
The potential electrode P1 was moved surrounding C-1,
whereas fixed potential electrode P2 was located 3 km
away from C-1 in opposite direction from C-2.
The general equation to calculate the apparent
resistivity was expressed as a general formula of :
I
V
K
a
=
(K is geometric factor for the Mise--la-masse electrodes configuration)
VERTICAL WELL CASE

The Mise--la-masse survey has been already
proven as a quick method for mapping a
geothermal prospective area (Kauahikaua,
et.al., 1980, Tagomori et.al., 1984, Ushijima,
1989, Mizunaga, 1991).
The electric potential due to a point source of
current electrode on the ground surface of an
isotropic and a homogeneous earth, if the
potential at an infinite distance is assumed to
be zero, is:
r
1
2
I
V
t

=
PRIHADI SA / 2002
The formula of the potential electrode P1 can be
derived by integrating the electric potential,
because of the point source at the well head for
the total depth along the vertical casing pipe.
The general formula for the potential calculation
in the Mise--la-masse configuration is :
V
P1P2
= V
P1
- V
P2
or can be written as :
( )
( )
)
`

+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ +

=
P2C2
1
P1C2
1
P2C1 P2C1
P1C1 P2C1
n
1
2
I
V
2 2
2 2
P1P2

PRIHADI SA / 2002
K is a geometric factor
1
2
2
2
2
P2C2
1
P1C2
1
P2C1 P1C1
P1C1 P2C1
ln
1
2 K

+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=

and,

+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
P2C2
1
P1C2
1
P2C1 P1C1
P1C1 P2C1
ln
1
2 I
V
2
2
2
2

Y
V
I
= if then a simple linear equation is expressed as
Y X =
where,
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
=
P2C2
1
P1C2
1
P2C1 P1C1
P1C1 P2C1
ln
1
2
1
X
2
2
2
2

PRIHADI SA / 2002
The theoretical apparent resistivity is derived by
least square method.

n
1 i
2
i
n
1 i
i i
t
X
Y X
=
=
=

=
=
=
=
= =
n
1 i
2
i
n
1 i
ai
2
i
n
1 i
2
i
n
1 i
i
i 2
i
t
X
X
X
X
Y
X

Finally, the theoretical potential at a certain point of j
location can be calculated as
i
X V
t ti
=
and the potential and the resistivity difference are :
i ti i i
X Y V Y V = =
t i

t ai i
= A
PRIHADI SA / 2002
DIRECTIONAL WELL CASE

The directional well problem derived by using
the similar procedure with the vertical well
casing case.
The Geometric factor for the Mise--la-masse
survey at a directional well casing pipe as is
defined by the following equation :
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1
2
1
2
cos sin cos
1
cos sin
2
2 cos
2 1
2
2
2
2
1
2
cos sin
2
cos
1
cos
2 2
1 1
2 1
2 K

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ + + + +

+
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ =

r r
r r r
n
r
r
n
| e u u
| e u u | e u u
u t
PRIHADI SA / 2002
P(x , y )
y
z
x
r
Ki c k o f f Po i n t
2
1
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
FOR
A DIRECTIONAL WELL
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CONTROLLED SOURCE AUDIO FREQUENCY
MAGNETO-TELLURIC METHOD
(CSAMT)
The CSAMT measurement area is similar to
the Magneto-Telluric method.
In the MT measurement the source of
magnetotelluric wave is natural, whereas
for the CSAMT measurement the source is
dipole discharged current.
In the CSAMT, the distance of the dipole
source and receiver is kept between 3 5 o,
in order to get a plane wave source
assumption as a natural magnetotelluric
wave.

The close distance between transmitter to
receiver will produce near field effects, as
indicated by increasing apparent resistivity
and decreasing phase if the frequency is
decreased.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
ELECTRIC FIELD
INPUT :
- Pre Amp
MAGNETIC FIELD
INPUT :
- Pre Amp
- Power Sup
FILTER AND
AMPLIFIER
A/D CONV.
6 - 24 CHAN
DIGITAL
TAPE RECORDER
MONITOR
ATENUATOR
CHANNEL H
ATENUATOR
CHANNEL E
GENERATOR
SIGNAL
COIL
PRIHADI SA / 2002
During the CSAMT survey, the subsurface
electrical formation response data was
measured by changing the frequency
during the field survey.
The sub-surface skin depth (o) relation is
f f
a a
503

= =
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Therefore, the deeper penetration can be
recorded by using the lower frequency.
The apparent resistivity calculation derived
from the measurement of electric field and
magnetic intensity at each point is
where,

a
= apparent resistivity (O-m)

= electric field (mV/km)

= magnetic field ()

x
E

y
H

2 . 0
Y
X
a
H
E
f
=
PRIHADI SA / 2002
The Bostick depth transform as described by Jones
(1983) was applied to confirm the 1-D maximum depth
penetration of each data point
( )
( )
M
M
B
- 1
+ 1
=
a

B =
computed Bostick resistivity,

a
= apparent resistivity,
M value is the slope of the apparent resistivity curve on
a log-log plot which is approximated using numerical
differentiation method, where,
0
a a
f 2

= h ;
) f ( log
) ( log
= M
m H / 10 4
7 -
=
h = depth (m)
PRIHADI SA / 2002
PRIHADI SA / 2002
MODELING OF CSAMT

Apparent resistivity is considered as a
measured resistivity value of the assumed
layered earth model.

The apparent resistivity value is relied on the
true resistivity and the electro-magnetic
frequency.
where,

= electric field intensity,
= electric capacity density,
= magnetic field intensity,
= magnetic permeability (
o
= 4 x 10
-7
H/m),
= magnetic induction (in isotropic medium = ),
= permittivity (
o
= x 10
-9
F/m),
= electric displacement (in isotropic medium = ),
= conductivity (
o
= 0 S/m),

H
36
1

E
The Maxwell equation is as follows :
t
B
E
c
c
=

+
c
c
= J

t
D
H
0

= B
| =

D
; ; ;
= electric current density (in isotropic medium = ),

J

E
z
k
x
i
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

y
j
(Cartesian)
PRIHADI SA / 2002
In the isotropic medium, the relation between impedance,
electric and magnetic fields within the layer boundary is
given by
=
H
E
Z
A layered model for the CSAMT interpretation, where
the subsurface has difference true resistivity values.
In depth variation ( )
of the wave propagation direction, the magnetic field
consisting of transmission and reflection is

1

n
i
i i
h z
=
=
) (
0
kz
y
e H z H =
PRIHADI SA / 2002
For layer i=1 to n can be expressed as
i i i i
i
z ik
i
z ik
i
i
z
y
e B e A H
-
+ =
and the electric field consisting of transmission and reflection is
i
i
z
y
x
z
H
E
i
c
c
= -
For layer i=1 to n can be expressed as
i
z
x
i
E
( )
i i i i
i
z ik
i i
z ik
i i
i
z
x
e B ik e A ik E
-
- =
where, k is a wave number,
n
n
i
k

e
=
PRIHADI SA / 2002
If the frequency is very low, an impedance
general formula for the n-1 layer is
( )
( )
( )
(
(

)
`

+ =
e
1 - n z
1 - n 1 - n
1 -
n
1 -
Z
arctanh h i - tanh

k
k
k
Z
n
z
n
and for the half space of the n
th
layer ,
( )
n
z
k
Z
n

=
to compute the surface impedance Z
(0)
.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
The calculation is starts with the impedance
computation at the n
th
-layer or
n
k
Z

=
1
In other words, Z
1
is the measured impedance in the
surface of n
th
-layer, Z
2
is the measured impedance in
the n-1 layer,etc. Z
n-1
is the measured impedance in
the 2
nd
-layer and Z
n
is the measured impedance in the
1
st
-layer or the field observed data.
( )
(
(

)
`

+ =

Z
arctanh h i - tanh

1 z
1 1
1
1 - n
k
k
k
Z
n
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Therefore, the measured apparent resistivity
for n
th
-layer is
( )
2
1 z
1 1
2
1
2 2

Z
arctanh h i - tanh
2 . 0
1 - n
(
(

)
`

+ =
k
k
k
f
a

Ai r
h
h
h
o
1
2
n-1
n
o
1
2
n-1
n
o
1
2
n-1
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
h
1
2
n-1
n
SUBSURFACE GEOMETRY OF THE LAYERED EARTH MODEL
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Pemancar untuk navigasi kapal selam yang
memiliki daya besar dengan medan elektro-
magnetik frekuensi rendah (15 30 kHz)
dimanfaatkan dalam survei VLF.
Medan primer yang dipancarkan oleh antena
menginduksi benda-benda konduktor di bawah
permukaan. Benda-benda konduktor tersebut
kemudian menghasilkan medan sekunder yang
ditangkap oleh alat penerima.
METODA VLF
KUMPARAN 1 KUMPARAN 2 KUMPARAN 3
KONDUKTOR
PEMANCAR
PENERIMA
PRIMER SEKUNDER
PRIMER
PRIHADI SA / 2002
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
1
1
1
"
'
Q
Ls K
M K
Hp
Hs
dimana
M : Induktansi antara pemancar dan konduktor
Hp : Medan Primer
Hs : Medan Sekunder
Q : Rapat massa medan elektromagnet
Untuk konduktor yang sangat baik Q >> komponen Hs
mempunyai fasa 180
0
terhadap komponen Hp.
Komponen ini disebut komponen real atau in-phase.
Sebaliknya untuk konduktor yang buruk Q ~ 0 komponen Hs
mempunyai fasa 90
0
terhadap komponen Hp.
Komponen ini di sebut komponen imajiner atau out-phase /
quadrature.
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Kedua komponen ini yang dideteksi dalam
pengukuran yang menggunakan metoda VLF.
Interpretasi data VLF dibuat berdasarkan teknik
filter linier :

I(0) = K (-0.25 h
-2
+ 0.323 h
-1
1.446 h
0
+ 1.446
h
+1
0.323 h
+2
+ 0.205 h
+3
)

dimana
K : konstanta yang bergantung pada jarak
antar titik pengukuran
h : harga pengukuran pada titik sebelumnya
(h
-n
) atau titik sesudahnya (h
+n
)
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Electrokinetic
(elektrofiltation)
(electromechanical)
(streaming)
Diffusion potential
Liquid-junction
Nernst potential ( Shale )
Mineral potential Constant
from John M. Reynolds, 1997, An Introduction to Applied and Environmental Geophysics
TYPES OF ELECTRICAL POTENTIALS
Electrochemical potential
Variable with time
PRIHADI SA / 2002
Mineral potentials
1. Sulphide ore bodies
2. ( pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
sphalerite, galena )
3. Graphite ore bodies
4. Magnetite + other electronically
conducting minerals
5. Coal
6. Manganese
7. Quartz veins Positive ~ ten of mV
Background potentials
9. Fluid streaming, geochemical reactions, etc Positive + / - negative <= 100 mV
10. Bioelectric ( lants, trees ) Negative <= 300 mV or so
11. Groundwater movement Positive or negative, up to hundreds of mV
12. Topography Negative, up to 2 V
NO.
TYPES OF SP AND THEIR GEOLOGICAL SOURCES
Negative ~ hundreds of mV
SOURCE TYPE OF ANOMALY
PRIHADI SA / 2002
No. MATERIAL NOMINAL RESISTIVITY ( O m )
SULPHIDES
1. Chalcopyrite 1.2 x 10
-5
- 3 x 10
-1
2. Pyrite 2.9 x 10
-5
- 1.5
3. Pyrrhotite 7.5 x 10
-6
- 5 x 10
-2
4. Galena 3 x 10
-5
- 3 x 10
2
5. Sphalerite 1.5 x 10
7
OXIDES
6. Hematite 3.5 x 10
-3
- 10
-7
7. Limonite 10
3
- 10
7
8. Magnetite 5 x 10
-5
- 5.7 x 10
-1
9. Ilmenite 10
-3
- 5 x 10
10. Quartz 3 x 10
2
- 10
6
11. Rock Salt 3 x 10 - 10
13
12. Anthracite 10
-3
- 2 x 10
5
13. Lignite 9 - 2 x 10
2
14. Granite 3 x 10
2
- 10
6
15. Granite (weathered ) 3 x 10 - 5 x 10
2
16. Syenite 10
2
- 10
6
17. Diorite 10
4
- 10
5
18. Gabbro 10
3
- 10
6
19. Basalt 10 - 1.3 x 10
7
20. Schists ( calcareous and mica ) 20 - 10
4
21. Schist ( graphite ) 10 - 10
2
22. Slates 6 x 10
2
- 4 x 10
7
23. Marble 10
2
- 2.5 x 10
8
24. Consolidated shales 20 - 2 x 10
3
25. Conglomerates 2 x 10
3
- 10
4
26. Sandstones 1 - 7.4 x 10
8
27. Limestones 5 - 10
7
28. Dolomite 3.5 x 10
2
- 5 x 10
3
29. Marls 3 - 7 x 10
30. Clays 1 - 10
2
31. Alluvium and Sand 10 - 8 x 10
2
32. Moraine 10

- 5 x 10
3
RESISTIVITIES OF COMMON GEOLOGIC MATERIALS
PRIHADI SA / 2002
No. MATERIAL NOMINAL RESISTIVITY ( O m )
33. Sherwood Sandstone 100 - 400
34. Soil ( 40% of clay ) 8
35. Soil ( 20% of clay ) 33
36. Top Soil 250 - 1700
36. London Clay 4 - 20
37. Lias Clay 10 - 15
38. Boulder Clay 15 - 35
39. Clay ( very dry ) 50 - 150
40. Mercia mudstone 20 - 60
41. Coal measures clay 50
42. Middle coal measures > 100
43. Chalk 50 - 150
44. Coke 0.2 - 8
45. Gravel ( dry ) 1400
46. Gravel ( saturated ) 100
47. Quartenery / Recent sands 50 - 100
48. Ash 4
49. Colliery spoil 10 - 20
50. Pulverised fuel ash 50 - 100
51. Laterite 800 - 1500
52. Lateritic soil 120 - 750
53. Dry sandy soil 80 - 1050
54. Sand clay / clayey sand 30 - 215
55. Sand and gravel 30 - 225
56. Unsaturated landfill 30 - 100
57. Saturated landfill 15 - 30
58. Acid peat waters 100
60. Acid mine waters 20
61. Rainfall runoff 20 - 100
62. Landfill runoff < 20 - 100
63. Glacier ice ( temperate ) 2 x 10
6
- 1.2 x 10
8
64. Glacier ice ( polar ) 5 x 10
4
- 3 x 10
-5*
65. Permafrost 10
3
- > 10
4
RESISTIVITIES OF COMMON GEOLOGIC MATERIALS
PRIHADI SA / 2002
PRIHADI SA / 2002