3.

Lie Derivatives And Lie Groups

3.1 Introduction: How A Vector Field Maps A Manifold Into Itself
3.2 Lie Dragging A Function
3.3 Lie Dragging A Vector Field
3.4 Lie Derivatives
3.5 Lie Derivative Of A One-form
3.6 Submanifolds
3.7 Frobenius' Theorem (Vector Field Version)
3.8 Proof Of Frobenius' Theorem
3.9 An Example: The Generators Of S
2

3.10 Invariance
3.11 Killing Vector Fields
3.12 Killing Vectors And Conserved Quantities In Particle Dynamics
3.13 Axial Symmetry
3.14 Abstract Lie Groups
3.15 Examples Of Lie Groups
3.16 Lie Algebras And Their Groups
3.17 Realizations And Representations
3.18 Spherical Symmetry, Spherical Harmonics And Representations
Of The Rotation Group
Congruence (flow):
Set of non-crossing curves that fill a part of M.
These curves are usually solutions of some vector field V.
Each point in M where V is non-singular (V=0) is on 1 & only 1 curve.
dim(congruence) = dim(M) 1
Lie derivative: Derivative along the congruence of a vector field V.
Lie dragging:
Moving each p in M by an amount along the
congruence is an auto-diffeomorphism.
These draggings form a 1-parameter Lie group.
3.1. Introduction: How A Vector Field Maps A Manifold Into Itself
2. Pull-back (reciprocal image) of f :
*
k
j
j k
y
f V V
x y
c c
=
c c
*
j
k
j
k
y
f dx
x
e e
c
=
c
Given ( )
: by f X Y x y f x = one can define 2 related mappings:
( )
( )
( )
* *
: by
P f P
f T X T Y V W f V = 1. Push-forward (differential) of f :
Given a coord basis:
f
*
is also written as f ', D f, or d f .
( )
( ) ( )
* * * *
: by
P f P
f T Y T X f e e
s.t. g : Y P, ( ) ( )
*
f V g V g f =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
*
*
* *
f
P f P
f
P f P
f
g f g
T X T Y
T X T Y
X Y

R
s.t. ( ) ( )
*
*
x y
f V f V e e =
Given a coord basis:
*
f g g f =
( )
( )
*
*
y
x
f V g V f g =
See Choquet, pp.121 & 138.
,
j k
j k
y dx e =
j
j
V V
x
c
=
c
j
j
dy e e =
( ) ( )
*
y x
V g f f V g =
( ) ( )
*
*
x y
V f f V e e =
*
f g g f =
( ) ( ) ( )
*
* *
g V f g V f f =
1
*
f h h f

=
Let (t,x
0
) be the integral curve of
d
V
dt
= that passes through x
0
at t = 0.
i.e.,
( )
( ) ( )
,
,
i
i
d t x
V t x
dt
o
o =
with ( )
0, x x o =
( ) ( ) ( )
, , , t s x t s x o o o = + since both satisfy the same differential eqs & same I.C.
( ) ( ) ( )
0, 0, 0, x x x o o o = =
Define map ( )
, :
t
t X X o o by ( ) ( )
,
t
x x t x o o =

t
is called the local transformation generated by vector field V.
(c.f. Schutzs Lie dragging. )
The set of all
t
is a 1-parameter transformation group.
Its local if the range of t is not all of P.
In which case, it becomes a pseudo group since closure is violated.
t t s s
o o o
+
=
( ) ( ) ( )
, , , t s x t s x o o o = +
See Choquet, p.144
3.2. Lie Dragging A Function
and vector field
Lie-dragging f along V by gives another function
: f M
A
R
s.t.
( ) ( ) ( )
f P f P

o
A A
=
i.e.
( ) ( )
( )
1
f x f x

o

A A
=
( )
d
V T M
d
= e
f is Lie dragged by V if f

= f.

with integral curve ( )
Given function f : M P
*
f f

o
A A
=
f

is just the push-forward :

1
f

o

A
=
or the pull-back :
*
f f

o
A A
=
1
f

o

A
=
3.3. Lie Dragging A Vector Field
Given vector field ( )
d
V T M
d
= e with integral curve ( )
Lie dragging a vector field W along V
= Operating on W by the push-forward of the local transformation.
*
W

o =
( )
,

o o
( )
d
V T M
d
= e with integral curve ( )
Lie derivative = Derivative along the congruence of a vector field.
3.4. Lie Derivatives
Definition: Lie derivative of a function
Given function f : M P
and vector field ( )
d
V T M
d
= e
( ) ( )
*
0
lim
V
x
f x f x
f

A
A

A
L
x
d f
d
=
( )
x
V f =
with integral curves (, x )
( ) ( )
0
lim
f x f x

A
A

=
A
( ) ( ) ( )
0
lim
f x f x

A
A

=
A
( ) ( )
1
*
0
lim
f x f x

A
A

( ) ( )
0
lim
f x f x

A
+ A ( (

=
A
( )
V
f V f = L
Definition: Lie derivative of a vector field W along vector field V
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1
*
0
1
lim
t t
V
t x
W W x W x
t
o o

L
Setting ( )
t
y x o =
( )
i i i
y x t V x + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
*
j j
i i
t j
i i j
x x
W y W y W y
y y x
o

c c c
= c =
c c c
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
i j
i k j
i j
k i
W x V x
W x tV x t
x y
o
| || | c c
+ + + c
| |
c c
\ .\ .
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
j j
j k i
j
k i
W x V x
W x t V x W x O t
x x
(
| | c c
= + c +
( |
c c
(
\ .

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
W x t V x W x W x V x O t = + +
,
V
W VW WV V W =

= (

L
( ) ( )
( )
j j
i i
V x V x
O t
y x
c c
= +
c c
where the multiplication
( ) ( ) ( )
VW f V W f
VW
is defined by
Also
VW V W =
is not a vector field since the Leibniz rule is not obeyed.
C
2
function f.
VW
( )
1
*
0
1
lim
t
x
t
W W x
t
o

(
=

Properties of the Lie derivative (see Ex 3.1-3)
( )
( ) ( )
V V V
= + A B A B A B L L L
, , , , , , 0
X Y Z Y Z X Z X Y
( ( (
( ( (
+ + =


L L L L L L L L L
,
,
V W V W (

(
=

L L L
( Jacobis identity )
( )
, ,
i j i j
i
V
i j
V W W V W = c L
( Leibniz rule: A is a derivation )
( Coordinate basis )
( ) ( ) ( )
i
i j i j i j
i i j
V
j
e
V e W W e V e V e W W = + L L
( General basis )
,
i
j
i j
W W
c
= c L
j
j
i
W
x
c
= c
c
( Coordinate-free partial )
i V
i
V
c
c = L L
j
j
i
V
x
c
= c
c
i
V
x
c
=
c
i
W
x
c
=
c
W V V W +
= + L L L
3.5. Lie Derivative of a 1-form
see Choquet, p.148.
Definition: Lie derivative of a 1-form field along vector field V
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
*
0
1
lim
t t
V
t x
x x
t
e o e o e

L
Exercise: show that
i
V
i
j
j
V
dx dx
x
c
=
c
L
c.f.
j
V
i j
i
V
x
c
c = c
c
L
( )
i
V V
i
dx e e = L L
( ) ( )
V
i
i
V
i
i
dx dx e e = + L L ( )
i
i
i j
i
j
V
V dx dx
x
e e
c
= +
c
i
j i j
i
j j
i
V
V dx dx
x x
e
e c c
= +
c c
i
j i j
i j
i
V
V dx
x x
e
e c
| | c
= +
|
c c
\ .
( c.f. Ex 3.14 )
The above can also be derived from
( )
( )
( )
( )
V V V
W W W e e e ( = +

L L L
Lie derivatives of tensors can be calculated using the Leibniz rule.
Basic formulae:
V V
d d = L L
,
i
V
i j
j
dx V dx = L
,
j
V
i i j
V c = c L
d is an anti-derivation that changes a (
m
n
) tensor into a (
m
n+1
) tensor.
A is a derivation that leaves the rank of a tensor unchanged.
( proof: operate both sides in components on f )
Example:
i
V V
i
W W = c L L ( )
i
i
V
i
i
V
W W c + c = L L
, ,
j i i j
j i i j
V W WV c c =
( )
, ,
j i j i
j i j
V W W V = c
3.6. Submanifolds
See Frankel, 1.3d.
A submanifold S of a manifold M is a subset of M that is also a manifold.
S is an s-D embedded submanifold of an m-D manifold M if there exists an
atlas of M s.t. in every chart, the coordinates of S are of the form
( )
1 1
, , , 0, , 0
s s m
x x x x
+
= =
or, more generally,
( )
1 1
, , , , ,
s m s
x x y y

where the y
j
's are functions of the x
k
's.
Note: all solutions y to some set of equations involving x are of this form.
Consider a point peS.
A curve in S through p is also a curve in M.
A (tangent) vector in T
p
(S) is also a vector in T
p
(M).
Indeed, T
p
(S) is a subspace of T
p
(M) .
A vector in T
p
(M) is not necessarily a vector in T
p
(S).
A 1-form in T
p
*
(M) is also a 1-form in T
p
*
(S) since it can map any vector in
T
p
(S) to P by treating it as a vector in T
p
(M).
A 1-form in T
p
*
(S) is not necessarily a 1-form in T
p
*
(M).

3.7. Frobenius' Theorem (Vector Field Version)
On a smooth manifold M, the order of partial derivatives is irrelevant.
( ) ( )
,
i j i j j i
f f f ( c c = c c c c

Coordinate basis vector fields commute, i.e.,
, ,
0
j i i j
f f = =
( )
f C M

e
, 0
i j
( c c =

since
C

(M) is the ring of all C

functions on M.
It is not a field because f
1
may not exist.

The set A(M) of vector fields on M is a vector space over the field K because it
is closed under linear combinations of constant coefficients.
If the coefficients of linear combinations are C

functions, A(M) becomes

a module over the ring C

(M).
If A(M) is closed under the Lie bracket, it becomes a Lie algebra.
A set of vector fields are linearly independent if they are lin. indep. at each point.
A set of m linearly independent, mutually commuting, vector fields can be taken
as a coordinate basis using the parametrization as coordinates.
By definition, their integral curves mesh to form a foliation (family of
submanifolds). Each (m1)-D submanifold, called a leaf of the foliation, is
specified by a fixed value of the mth coordinate.
Frobenius theorem generalize this to the case of a set of vector fields which spans
a module over C

(M) that is closed under the Lie bracket.

Lemma : The set of all linear combinations (non-constant coefficients allowed)
of a set of mutually commuting vector fields is closed under the Lie bracket.
Alternative phrasing: the module over C

(M) spanned by a set of mutually

commuting vector fields is closed under the Lie bracket.
Mathematical terms: if
( ) ( )
, 0
i j
V V
(
=

( ) ( )
( )
( )
i
a a i
i
W W x V =

, 1, , i j m =
then
( ) ( )
( )
( )
,
a b
i
ab i
i
x V W W o
(
=


Proof: See Ex 3.5.
( )
i i
V = c
Setting vector fields on a submanifold are closed under the Lie bracket.
Frobenius theorem:
Let A(U) be the set of all linear combinations ( with possibly non-constant
coefficients ) of a set of vector fields on a region U of a manifold M.
[ i.e, A(U) is a module of vector fields on UcM over ring C

(U). ]
If A(U) is closed under the Lie bracket, then the integral curves of the vector
fields mesh to form a foliation.
Proof: see 3.8.
The original version of the theorem was described in terms of differential
forms (see 4.26) and dealed with the integrability conditions of Pfaffian
systems (existence of solutions of system of partial differential equations).
Examples:
Fig.3.7

3.8 Proof of Frobenius' Theorem
Ancillary relations:
( ) ( )
V V
d f d f = L L ( )
,
,
i j
i
j
V f dx =
( ) ( )
,
V V
d f W d f W = L L , ,
V V
d f W d f W = + L L ( )
,
,
i j
j
i
V f W =
( )
, ,
V V
d f W d f W = L L
, , ,
V
d f V W d f W = (

L
Strategy of proof:
Since the theorem is satisfied if the vector fields commute, we need only show
that a set of m linearly independent, mutually commuting, vector fields can be
constructed out of m lin. indep. fields that are closed under the Lie bracket.
This will be done by induction.
The case m = 1 is trivial since foliation = curve = leaf.
Assuming case m1 is valid, we shall prove that case m also holds.
Let the m lin. indep. fields be
( )
{ }
; 1, ,
a
V a m =
with
( ) ( ) ( )
1
,
m
c
ab a b c
c
V V V o
=
(
=


Let
( )
( )
m
m
d
V
d
=
and
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
m
j
i i j
j
X V

=
=

for i = 1, , m1
s.t.
( ) ( )
, 0 1, , 1
m i
d X i m = =
( ) ( ) ( )
1
,
m
a
i j i j a
a
X X V o
=
(
=



( ) ( )
1
1
m
k
i j i j k m
k
X V |

=
= +

( ) ( ) ( )
1
,
m
a
mi m i a
a
V X V o
=
(
=

( ) ( )
1
1
m
k
mi m j k m
k
X V |

=
= +

Next, we show that

( ) ( ) ( )
, , 0
m i j
d X X
(
=

( ) ( ) ( )
, ,
m m j
d V X
(
=

( )
, , , ,
V V
d f V W d f W d f W = (

L L
Since
we have
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
, , , ,
i i
m i j m j m j X X
d X X d X d X
(
=

L L
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
i i
m m X X
d d = L L
( )
( )
0
m
i
d
d
d

| |
= = |
|
\ .
0 =
( ) ( )
, 0
m i
d X =
and
Similarly,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , , ,
m m i m i m
d V X d X V
( (
=

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
, ,
i i
m m m m X X
d V d V = L L 0 =
where
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
, ,
m m m
m
d
d V d
d

=
( )
( )
1
m
m
d
d

= =

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
, 1 0
i i
m m X X
d V = = L L
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
,
m
k
i j i j i j k m
k
X X X V |

=
(
= +


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
,
m
k
mi m j m i k m
k
V X X V |

=
(
= +



( ) ( )
0 ,
i j m m
d V =
i j
=

( ) ( )
0 ,
m j m m
d V =
m j
=
i.e.,
( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
,
m
k
i j i j k
k
X X X |

=
(
=


( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
,
m
k
mi m i k
k
V X X |

=
(
=


{X
(i)
} is a set of m1 lin. indep. vector fields closed under the Lie bracket.
Invoking the (m1) case of the theorem, {X
(i)
} can be transformed into a set
of m1 of lin. indep. mutually commuting vector fields {Y
(i)
} whose integral
curves mesh into a (m1)D foliation S'.
Next, we extend {Y
(i)
} into the entire U by requiring it to be invariant under the
group transformation generated by V
(m)
( i.e., Lie dragging along V
(m)
).
( )
( )
( )
( )
*
on
outside
m
i
i
i
Y
S
Z
Y S

'

=

'

Calling the resultant fields {Z

(i)
}, this means
Since
* * *
, , f V W f V f W = ( (

we also have
( ) ( )
, 0
i j
Z Z
(
=

with
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
, 0
m
i m i V
Z V Z
(
= =

L
QED

3.9. An Example: The Generators of S
2
x y
e y e xe
|
= +
{ }
; , ,
i
l i x y z =
j
i i j k
k
l x
x
c
c

c
z
l y x
x y |
c c c
= +
c c c
~ ( ang mom op )
In general
, ,
k m
i j i kl j mn l n
l l x x c c ( ( = c c

j
i j k k
x c = c
( ) ( ) ( )
,
k m m k k m
i kl j mn l n n l l n
x x x x x x c c ( = c c c c + c c

( )
k m m k
i kl j mn l n n l
x x c c o o = c c
k m
i kl jl n n i kl j mk l
x x c c c c = c c
( )
k
i kl j l n i l n j kl n
x c c c c = c
( )
k
i j k n i n k j i j nk i k n j n
x o o o o o o o o = + + c
( )
k
i n k j i k n j n
x o o o o = c
j i
i j
x x = c c
i j k k
l c =
Integral curves of form a foliation with spherical leaves.
( implied sum over
repeated indices )
( )
j
i i j k
k
r
l r x
x
c
c
=
c
k
j
i j k
x
x
r
c
| |
=
|
\ .
0 =
every l
i
is tangent to the constant r surfaces.
Only 2 of them are linearly independent at each point.
Each leaf in the foliation is just S
2
.
( )
i
dr l =
Comment: Angular momenta are generators of rotations.
Thus, they are antisymmetric tensors of rank 2.
Only in 3-D space are they equivalent to vectors.

3.10. Invariance
Principal use of Lie derivatives: Invariants of tensor fields
Symmetries, Lie groups
A tensor T is invariant under a vector field V if
0
V
= T L
Let F = { T
(1)
, T
(2)
, } be a set of tensor fields.
Then the set A of all vector fields under which F is invariant is a Lie algebra.
Proof:
( ) ( ) ( )
0
i i i aV b W V W
a b
+
= + = T T T L L L
V W V W +
= + L L L
Since
we have
for aeP . and
a V V
a = L L
i.e., A is a vector space.
From
,
,
V W V W (

(
=

L L L
( ) ( ) ,
, 0
i i V W V W (

(
= =

T T L L L
we have
i.e., A is a Lie algebra.
, & , V W A a b e eR
aV bW A + e
, V W A e
, V W A e (

Caution: A is a vector space only under combinations with constant coefficients.
Example:
{ }
i
l
is linearly dependent in P
3
.
( )
0
i i
i
x l c =

can be satisfied with some c

i
(x) = 0 i.e.,
However,
{ }
i
l is linearly independent if only constant c
i
are allowed.
Lie algebra generated by { l
i
} is 3-D.
submanifold generated by { l
i
} is 2-D.

3.11. Killing Vector Fields
V is a Killing vector field if the metric tensor g is invariant wrt it, i.e.,
0
V
= g L
( )
i j
i j
V V
g dx dx = g L L
k i j i k j j i k
k i j i j k i j k
V g dx dx g V dx dx g V dx dx = c + c + c
( )
, , ,
k k k i j
i j k k j i i k j
V g g V g V dx dx = + +
For
m
m
x
V
c
c
c
= we have ,
i j
i j m
V
g dx dx = g L
m
i i
V o =
&
c
j
is a Killing vector g is independent of x
j

( )
k k k i j
k i j k j i i k j
V g g V g V dx dx = c + c + c
E
3
, Cartesian coordinates:
i i j j
g o =
, ,
x y z
c c c
Killing vectors:
E
3
, spherical coordinates:
( )
, ,
r r
diag
u u | |
= c c c c c c g
( )
2 2
1, , sin diag r r u =
Killing vectors:
z
l
|
c = Also: ,
x y
l l

3.12. Killing Vectors & Conserved Quantities in Particle Dynamics
Classical mechanics H = T + :
indep of x p
x
conserved
indep of p

conserved
Not so for other coordinate systems
Reason: Conserved momentum must be Killing vector field of configuration space.
Further discussions deferred to Chapter 5.
g is involved because the tensor form of the Newtons equation is
i i
m x = c u
i
j
j
x
g
cu
c
=

3.13. Axial Symmetry
Axial symmetry = invariance about an axis
Cylindrical symmetry = axial symmetry + translational symmetry along axis
Eq of motion:
0 L =
L = linear operator invar under + a
Caution: A solution is not necessarily axially symmetric,
e.g., if is the path of a particle.
Fourier analysis:
( ) ( )
,
j j i m
m
m
x x e

=
=

m
( )
i m i m
m m m
L e L e

=
( for a field )
( )
0
i m
m m
m
L e

=
=

( )
i m
m
m
L L e

=
=

Example:
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
sin
sin sin
L r
r r r r r
u
u u u u |
c c c c c
= V = + +
c c c c c
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
~ ,
i m i m i m i m
m m m m m m
L e L e f e f r e
| | | |
u

= V = V
2
2
2 2 2 2
1 1
sin
sin sin
m
m
r f
r r r r r
u
u u u u
| | c c c c
= +
|
c c c c
\ .
= scalar axial harmonics
has axial eigenvalue m if
e
i m
|
= L
e|
|
= c L
If is a scalar, then
i m
C e
|
=

Let S be the submanifold (with boundary) = 0.
Let be a 2-D basis for T
P
(S) at each peS.
{ } { }
1 2
,
j
e e e =
is a basis for T
P
(M_ P
3
) at peS.

{ }
,
j
e e

around the axis of symmetry generates a basis peM. Lie dragging

{ }
,
j
e e

Let ()

be an integral curve of
e

{ }
{ }
0 0
0 0
* *
, ,
j j
e e e e


o o =
The basis at a point with =
0
is
Since , 0
j j
e
e e e

( = =

L
we have ( )
*
0
j j
e e
e e

o = = L L
i.e.,
{ }
,
j
e e

are all axially symmetric.
Note: The Cartesian components of are functions of .
*
0
e e
e e

o = = L L
For axis = z, S = x-z
half-plane with x > 0.
{ }
,
j
e e

( ) ( )
0
j
e e
e e


= = L L means
( )
( ) ( )
( )
i m
j m j e e
e e e

= L L
have axial eigenvalues 0.
( ) ( )
{ }
,
j
e e

are vector axial harmonics with axial eigenvalues m.
( )
( )
( )
( )
{ }
( ) ( )
{ }
, ,
i m i m
j m m j
e e e e e e


=
( )
( ) ( )
i m i m
j j
e
e e e e

= c + L
( )
i m
j
i me e

=
( )
( )
m j
i me =
i.e.,
Thus, the solution to
( )
( )
( )
( )
j
m j m
V a e b e

= +
where a
1
, a
2
and b are independent of .
e
V i mV

= L can be written as
The group of transformation (Lie draggings) {

} is
the 1-parameter Lie group SO(2).
Spherical symmetry leads to SO(3).
( )
e e



( sum over j implied )

3.14. Abstract Lie Groups
A Lie group G is a group that is also a differentiable manifold s.t.
the group & differential structures are compatible.
( )
1
by , G G G x y x y

is a differentiable map i.e.,

Choquet, pp.116, 153.
The set {
g
} is a Lie group of transformations on manifold X if the map
( ) ( )
: by , , G X X g x g x o o
is differentiable and if the set of transformations
( ) ( )
{ }
: ; ,
g g
X X x g x o o o =
is a group wrt composition, s.t.
g h gh
o o o =
( Left action of G on X )
g h hg
o o o =
( Right action of G on X )

e
is the identity transformation
or
with
1
1
g
g
o o

=

Left translation by g : ( )
: by
g g
L G G h L h g h =
Right translation by g : ( )
: by
g g
R G G h R h h g =
Left translation by g near e
For X = G, the differential (push forward) of the translations are
( ) ( ) ( )
*
:
g h gh
L h T G T G
( ) ( ) ( )
*
:
g h hg
R h T G T G
( L
g*
(e) = Schutzs L
g
)
A vector field V on G is left invariant if it is invariant under left translations, i.e.,
( )
( )
* g g
L V h V L h = ( )
V gh =
, g h G e
Setting h = e gives ( )
* g
L V g = where ( )
V e =
In local coordinates:
( )
( )
( )
( )
*
i
j
j
i
g
L V h
h
V
gh
h
c
c
=
( )
( )
*
i
g
e
i
j
j
h
gh
h
L
=
c
c
=
( )
Left invar.
i
V gh
=
( )
i
V g =
For h = e :
Note: V(h) V|
h
denotes the value of V at heG.
Let (t , g ) be the integral curve of V that passes through g for t = 0.
The transformations
t
= ( t, ) form an Abelian group A with group
multiplication
t
o
s
=
t+s
.
Setting (t , e ) = g ( t ) turns the curve into a 1-parameter Abelian
subgroup of G isomorphic to A with group multiplication
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
~
t s t s g t
L g s g t g s g t s o o o
+
= = = + g(0) = e.
The subgroup { g ( t ) =(t , e ) } is entirely specified by ( )
V e =
The integral curve (t , h ) is the left coset h { g (t ) } of { g (t ) } wrt h.
By definition: ( ) ( ) ( )( )
, exp
t
h t h t V h o o = =
( ) ( ) ( )( )
exp
t
g t e t e

o = =
( Exponentiation always generates a left (or
right) translation along (t) )
It is sometimes denoted by { g

( t ) }.
For each vector in T
e
(G), one can construct a left invariant field V & hence
a unique 1-parameter subgroup { g

( t ) }.
Every element on the path connected submanifold of G containing e belongs
to one of these 1-parameter subgroups.
Restriction to invariant fields guarantees manifold::group compatibility.
Since
* * *
, , f V W f V f W = ( (


( ) ( )
* * *
, ,
g g g
L V W h L V L W h ( = (

( )
, V W gh = (

if V, W are left invar fields
Left (or right) invariant vector fields form a Lie algebra A(G).
( )( ) ( ) ( )
* * * g g g
L aV bW h a L V h b L W h + = +
, a b eR
[ V, W ] is also a left-invariant field.
Left-invariant fields are closed under Lie bracket.
Left (or right) invariant vector fields form a vector space over P.
( )( )
aV bW gh = + if V, W are left invar fields
, , , , , , 0 V U W U W V W V U ( ( ( + + = ( ( (


automatically
satisfied
Since each left invariant field is specified by its value at e,
A(G) is isomorphic to I , the Lie algebra of G on T
e
(G).
Let
( )
{ }
; 1, ,
i
V i n =
be a basis of I or A(G).
( ) ( ) ( )
,
k
i j i j k
V V c V
(
=

I or A(G) is specified by the structual constants c
k
i j
given by
{ }
k
i j
c = C is a (
1
2
) tensor.
Every Lie group has a unique structure tensor but not vice versa.

3.15. Examples of Lie Groups
(i) P
n
It is a manifold under the usual (n-balls) topology.
It is an Abelian Lie group under vector addition.
The 1-parameter subgroups are rays ( straight lines through 0 ).
The congruence of a left invariant field consists of lines parallel to a given ray.
A left invariant field is therefore a constant vector field: V(x) = V(0) = .
All Lie brackets of left invariant fields vanish.
The Lie algebra is Abelian.
(ii) GL(n,P) = Group of all nn invertible real matrices
Group operation = Matrix multiplication.
e = Unit matrix.
g
1
= Inverse matrix.
It is a differentiable manifold (Lie group) because it is a submanifold of
Coordinates: n
2
matrix elements.
2
n
R
Tangent space =
2
n
R
Group manifold =
{ }
2
\ points giving singular matrices
n
R
1-parameter subgroup:
( ) ( ) ( )
exp 0
A A
g t t A g =
where generator
( )
2
0
n A
t
d g t
A
dt
=
= eR
is isomorphic to the space of all nn real matrices.
Other integral curves of the left-invariant vector field can be obtained by left
translate (multiply) { g
A
(t) } by some group element h e { g
A
(t) }.
( )
exp t A e =
( )
exp t A =
Matrices with negative determinants dont belong to any 1-paramter subgroup.
GL(n,P) is a disconnected group.
Elements path-connected to e form the component of the identity, which is just
the subgroup SL(n,P).
The Lie bracket of the left-invariant fields is defined as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
,
A B A B B A
g t g t g t g t g t g t = (

where is the group (matrix) multiplication.
the Lie bracket for the Lie algebra can be written as
, ~
e
A B (

A B B A
where A is the matrix version of the vector A|
e
.
(iii) O(n), SO(n) = Groups of all nn orthogonal real matrices ( S means det = +1)
O(n) is disconnected.
SO(n) = component of identity of O(n).
A e GL(n,P) can be taken as a (
1
1
) tensor on P
n
.
A maps a (column) vector in P
n
to another vector in P
n
.
Similarity transform B
1
AB is a basis transformation e
i
B
1
e
i
on A.
The canonical form of A e SO(n) is block diagonal with blocks of
cos sin
1, 1, or
sin cos
u u
u u
| |
+
|

\ .
(see Ex.3.14)
where the number of 1 blocks must be even.
Every A e SO(n) represents a rotation in some 2-D plane.
SO(n) = group of rotations.
The other component of O(n) represents inversions that change
the handedness of basis.
The basis of so(3) is
1
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
L
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
2
0 0 1
0 0 0
1 0 0
L
| |
|
=
|
|

\ .
3
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 0
L

| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
or
( )
i i j k
j k
L c =
1
T
T t B t B
A A e e

= =
Let
t B
A e =
then
T
B B =
The Lie algebra o(n) of group O(n) consists of all anti-symmetric nn matrices.
The anti-symmetric condition gives n diagonal & n(n1)/2 off-diagonal relations.
Dimensions of both o(n) & so(n) are
( ) ( )
2
1 1
1 1
2 2
n n n n n n =
so that
( )
i j i mk j k n
mn
L L c c =
i n m j i j mn
o o o o =
,
i j i n m j j n mi
mn
L L o o o o ( =
i j k k nm
c c =
( )
i j k k
mn
L c =
,
i j i j k k
L L L c ( =

( )
( ) ( )
2
i i n mn m i i i
mn
L o o o o =
( )
( )
1
mn i n
o o =
Convention: Algebras of subroups of GL(n,K) are denoted by lower case letters.
(iv) SU(n) = Group of all nn unitary matrices with unit determinants
SU(n) is a subgroup of GL(n,X).
SU(n) is the component of identity of U(n).
1 t A t A
U U e e
+
+
= =
Let
t A
U e =
then
A A
+
=
u(n) consists of all nn anti-Hermitian matrices.
The (real) dimension of group U(n) is n
2
.
The anti-Hermitian condition imposes n(n1)/2 off-diagonal complex,
& n imaginary diagonal, conditions.
(Real) dimension of u(n) is
( )
2 2
2 1 n n n n n =
su(n) consists of all nn anti-Hermitian traceless matrices.
The (real) dimension of SU(n) is n
2
1.

3.16. Lie Algebras & Their Groups
Every Lie group G has its Lie Algebra I.
Every element g of G is on one of the integral curves of a left invariant field
specified by a vector in T
e
(G).
If g is not a member of a 1-par subgroup, the integral curve that passes through
it can be obtained by a left or right translation of some subgroup.
Hence, not all Lie groups can be obtained solely from their Lie algebras.
Definition: Lie Algebra
A Lie algebra is a vector space endowed a bilinear Lie bracket s.t.
, , A B B A = ( (

, , , , , , 0 A B C B C A C A B
( ( (
+ + = ( ( (


Example:
3
, A B A B (

e R
( M, ) is a covering space of N if (see Choquet, p.19)
M is connected & locally connected.
: M N is onto & continuous.

1
: N M is a multi-valued homeomorphism.
Which means peN, - neighborhood N(p) s.t. the restriction of
to each connected component C

of
1
(N(p)) is a homeomorphism.
Schutzs notation: N is covered by M
M is disconnected if - 2 disjoint open sets A
1
& A
2
s.t. A
1
A
2
= M.
M is connected C & M are the only sets that are both open & closed.
M is locally connected if every neighborhood of every point contains a
connected neighborhood.
M is simply connected if every closed curve can be shrunk continuously to a point.
Theorem:
1. Every Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of 1 & only 1 simply-connected Lie group.
2. Every Lie group with the same Lie algebra is covered by the simply-connected one.
Example: S
1
is covered by P
( ) ( )
1
: by cos , sin S x x x x t t = R
( ) ( )
2 , 2 1 C
o
ot o t = +
S
1
is multiply-connected.
S
n
is simply connected for n > 2.
Example: P is simply connected.
SU(2) is simply connected
Proof: Let set of all matrices of the form
* *
a b
H
b a
| |
=
|

\ .
2 2
1 a b + =
SU(2) = H with
H is a 4-D real vector space with basis

2 2
det A a b = + A H e
H\{O} is a Lie subgroup of GL(n,X)
0 0
0 0
O
| |
=
|
\ .
0 1 2 3
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
i
I
i
o o o o

| | | | | | | |
= = = = =
| | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ .
Thus
* *
a b
A
b a
| |
=
|

\ .

( )
3
2
0
2 1
i
i
SU A o
=


= =
`

)

SU(2) is simply connected

0 3 1 2
1 2 0 3
i
i
o o o o
o o o o
+
| |
=
|
+
\ .
3
0
i i
i
oo
=
=

where
= S
3
in 4-D -space

i
eP
i.e., every element of SU(2) can be
generated by exponentiation from e
3
1
, 2
i j i j k k
k
i o o c o
=
( =


The Pauli matrices satisfy , 1, 2, 3 i j =
( The structure constants should be real since the vector space & algebra are real )
2
k k
i
J o =

3
1
,
i j i j k k
k
J J J c
=
( =


Note: J
2
in eq(3.65),
Schutz, is wrong.
A vector in T
e
(SU(2)) can be written as
3
1
i i
i
t J
=
=

Elements of a 1-parameter subgroup of SU(2) are given by

( ) ( )
exp g t t

=
E.g. ( ) ( )
exp
k
J k
g t t J =
( )
0
!
n
n
k
n
t
J
n

=
=

2
k
I o =
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 1
0
2 ! 2 2 1 ! 2
n n
n n
k
n
t t
I i
n n
o
+

=
(

| | | |
= +
(
| |
+
\ . \ .
(

( )
0
1
! 2
n
n
k
n
i t
n
o

=
| |
=
|
\ .

cos sin
2 2
k
t t
I i o = +
left invar. fields
The generators J
k
of a unitary matrix must be anti-hermitian.
The Pauli matrix
k
are hermitian J
k
i
k

Setting
( )
( )
( )
2
1
i mn i n
mn
L o o =
The generators for SO(3) are (see 3.15):
( )
i i j k
j k
L c =
so that ,
i j i j k k
L L L c ( =

( )
( )
( )
3
1
i mk i k n i k
mn
L o o c =
i mn
c =
3
i i
L L =

( )
1
2 1
n
n
i i
L L
+

=
( )
1
2 2
n
n
i i
L L
+
=
( )
with the , th element set to 0 I i i =
( ) ( )
exp
k
L k
g t tL =
( )
1
!
n
n
k
n
t
I L
n

=
= +

( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
2 1 2 2
1
2 1 ! 2 !
n n
n n
k k
n
I t L t L
n n
+ +

=
(

= + +
(

n = 1,2,
2 2
sin cos
k k k
I L t L t L = + +
E.g.
( )
1
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
L
g t t t
t t
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
(SU(2) , ) is a covering space of SO(3).
Setting ( ) ( )
: 2 3 SU SO t by
( ) ( )
( )
( )
k k k
J J L
g t g t g t t =
The domain of ( )
k
J
g t
is t e [ 0, 4 ). That of
Restricting to either t e [ 0, 2 ) or t e [ 2 , 4 )
makes it a homeomorphism.
(SU(2) , ) is a double covering space of SO(3).
i.e., SO(3) is doubly covered by SU(2).
( )
k
L
g t
is t e [ 0, 2 ).
The projection of S
3
onto the 3-D space of coordinates
(
1
,
2
,
3
) is the closed ball of radius 1.
( c.f. projection
of S
2
onto P
2
. )
2 2
0
1 r o =
Only the outermost sphere with = 1 can be taken to represent actual points on S
3
.
All other spheres with r < 1 are projections.
All points on a sphere have the same coordinate
Every point in the ball can be taken as e, different choices merely reflect
different perspectives for the projection.
Every great circle C on the r = 1 sphere is also a great circle of S
3
.
By choosing e to lie on the r = 1 sphere, each C on it represents a 1-
parameter subgroup of SU(2).
Going once around C changes t by 4.
For SO(3), each pair of diametrically opposite points on C are identical.
(The pair is also diametrically opposite on S
3
. )
This creates a 2nd kind of closed path that cannot be shrunk continuously
to a point : any curve joining a diametrically opposite pair of points.
SO(3) is doubly connected.
SU(2) & SO(3) share the same Lie algebra they are identical near e.
SU(2) is the only simply-connected Lie group associated with the Lie algebra.
A rotation in n-D space ( an element of SO(n) ) can be represented by a vector
in the Lie algebra, which is also a vector space of dimension n(n1)/2.
Thus, the association of an n-D rotation with an n-D angular momentum
vector is possible only if n = n(n1)/2, i.e. n = 3.
Objects whose rotations are elements of SU(2) are called spinors.
A vector in the Lie algebra ( internal space of the particle ) is called a spin.
The association of a SU(2) element with a 3-D vector allows the association
of spin with an (angular momentum) vector in P
3
.
The Lie algebra of the Lie group P
n
is an n-D Abelian Lie algebra A.
Since P
n
is simply-connected, all other Lie groups G with Lie algebra A
must be covered by P
n
.
Also P
n
is Abelian & identical to G near e. G must be Abelian.
All Lie groups of an Abelian algebra are Abelian.

3.17. Realizations & Representations
Abstract group : Group defined by manifold & group structure.
Group in physics : symmetry transformations (operations).
Realization of a group : A map T : G L(M), where L(M) is the space
of operators on M, that preserves the group structure, i.e.,
( )
identity transform on T e I M = =
( ) ( ) ( )
, T gh T g T h g h G = e
( )
( )
1 1
T g T g

=
The realization is a representation if L(M) is the space of
linear operators on a vector space M.
The realization / representation is faithful if T is 1-1.
Example (i):
The above still holds if G is applied to the 2-sphere S
2
.
However, since S
2
is a manifold, G(S
2
) is a faithful realization of SO(3).
The abstract group SO(3) is defined by its Lie algebra & topology.
Consider the group G of all 33 orthogonal matrices with unit determinant.
Given any column matrix x corresponding to a point xeP
3
and a matrix R eG,
Rx represents a rotation of x.
Its straightforward to show that there is a 1-1 correspondence of G & SO(3) that
preserves the group operations.
Since P
3
is a vector space, G(P
3
) is a faithful representation of SO(3).
Historically, G(P
3
) is studied first & then abstracted to SO(3).
Most abstract groups are established in a similar manner.
Example (ii):
Every group has at least 2 faithful realizations :
The left- & right- translations of itself.
(h gh) is called the progressive realizations &
(h hg
1
) the retrograde realizations.
Example (iii): Adjoint Representations
Given group G, the map
I
g
: G G by h o g h g
1
where geG
is called the adjoint realization of G on G.
I
g
is an inner automorphism of G.
The group adjoint realization need not be faithful.
E.g., I
g
= id g if G is Abelian.
Since ( )
1
g
I e geg e

= =
geG
The differential (push-forward) I
g*
of I
g
at e is
called the adjoint map Ad
g
.
( )
*
:
g
g g e e I e
I Ad T T T = =
t X
g
I e =
Thus, I
g
maps a 1-par subgroup f
X
(t) to another 1-par subgroup ( )
g
Ad X
f t
i.e.,
( )
g
g
t Ad
d
X
A X
e f t =
1 t X
g e g

=
See Aldrovandi, 8.4.
( )
g X
I f t =
Taking t 0 gives (see Ex 3.23)
( )
sY
g s e =

( )
Y
sL
g s
Ad X e X =
The map Ad: G L(I,I) is called the adjoint representation of G on I.
L(I,I) = space of all linear automorphisms of I.
The adjoint rep is used in the definition of connection for fibre bundles.

3.18. Spherical Symmetry, Spherical Harmonics &
Representations of the Rotation Group
A manifold M with metric g is spherically symmetric if the Lie algebra of its
Killing vector fields has subalgebra isomorphic to so(3).
The above definition avoids the possible embarassment that the center
of spherical symmetry does not exist because it lies outside M.
Reminder: A Killing vector field generates (isometric) group of transformations.
I.e., g is invariant under translation along the integral curves of the field.
It was shown in 3.9 that the Killing vector fields on S
2
are
{ }
1 2 3
, , l l l
with commutators ,
i j k k
k
i j
l l l c ( =


Reminder: l
j
are lin. indep. under linear combinations of constant coefficients.
On S
2
of radius a :
( ) ( )
2 2 2
, , sin diag g g diag a a
uu ||
u = = g
i.e., the Lie algebra of Killing fields on S
2
the same as so(3).
Conversely, - a foliation in a spherically symmetric M with spherical leaves.
( ) ( ) ( )
,
i j k k
k
i j
V V V c
(
=


Switching to the basis
( )
{ }
i i
V l =
gives commutators
Let L
2
(S
2
) be the Hilbert space of all square-integrable functions on S
2
.
The norm of f e L
2
(S
2
) is defined as ( )
( ) 2
1/ 2
2
2
, sin
S
f f d d u | u u | =
}
A realization of SO(3) on S
2
is given by the map g o
g
,
where
g
is the group of transformation

g
(x) = ( g, x ), x e S
2
, g e SO(3)
s.t.
g h
=
g

h
.
This induces the pull back of
g
s.t.

( )
( ) ( )
( )
*
g g
f x f x o o =
( )
2 2
f L S e
In physics, one usually defines the function transformed by R by ( )( ) ( )
Rf Rx f x =
For the transformation R
g
corresponding to
g
, this means
1
*
g
g
R o

=
Hence the map R by g o R(g) = R
g
is a representation of SO(3) on L
2
(S
2
).
Note that R
g
: L
2
(S
2
) L
2
(S
2
) is an automorphism on linear space L
2
(S
2
).
A representation is irreducible if it contains no invariant subspaces.
One task of theoretical group theory is to find all irreducible representations of a group.
By definition, SO(3) has at least one faithful 3-D representation in terms of
orthogonal matrices.
Since L
2
(S
2
) is an infinite dimensional space, the representation of SO(3) on it
must be reducible.
Indeed, it can be decomposed into a countable set of finite dimensional
irreducible representations (IR) each specified by an integer L = 0, 1, 2, .
The L
th
IR has dimension 2L+1 and basis { Y
LM
, M = L, L+1, , L}.
By definition:
( )
( ) ( )
2
*
, ,
L
g LM g LN
M N S
R Y R Y d u | u | = O
}
geSO(3)
where
( )
L
g LM g LN
N
N
M
R Y R Y =

and R
g
is some differential operator representing g.
Historically, Y
LM
is chosen to be the pherical
harmonics, which are eigenfunctions of l
z
and L
2

( )
2
k l
k

L
(See Ex.3.24-5 )
Since SU(2) doubly covers SO(3), the representation of SU(2) is double-valued.
Thus, a faithful representation of SU(2) consists of 2 disjoint parts, each of which
is a faithful representation of SO(3).
IRs of SU(2) are labeled by half-integers J = 0, , 1, 3/2, .
Every element is on some 1-par subgroup parametrized by t = [0, 4) which can
be splitted into 2 disjoint parts, [0, 2) and [2, 4).
For J = L = integers, the representation on both parts are identical.
For J = odd half integers, it behaves differently.