Copyright Pakistan International Airlines Training Center Karachi

Pulse Circuits & Radar Receivers

In the name of ALLAH, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Objectives
To explain the analysis of transient and non
sinusoidal voltages.
Square.
Saw tooth.
Trapezoidal.
Rectangular.
To explain the transient voltages applied to CR/LR
circuits and applications
(differentiators/integrators).
Limiters.
Square wave generators


RC Circuits
Making integrators and differentiators with RC circuits.
Coupling Circuits-Design and applications.
Clamping circuits.
Positive clamping.
Negative clamping.
Clipping circuits.
Series Limiting.
Parallel limiting.
Applications of clippers & clampers.
Pulse Shaping circuits
Diode multiplier.
Over driven transistor amplifiers.
Schmitt trigger.


Block Diagram-Primary Radar
Analysis of Waveforms
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Application Of Pulse Voltage to an RC
Circuit
What will be the effect of the application
of the following waveform on the given
circuits?
R
C R
C
+V Volts
Application Of Pulse Voltage to an RC
Circuit-Short RC
R
C +V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr The
Output
Application Of Pulse Train to an RC Circuit-Short RC
R
C +V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr
The shorter the time
constant the more well
defined will be the pips
which are then utilized
(after getting rid of the
negative going pips for
synchronization).
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Application Of Pulse Train to an RC Circuit-Long RC
R
C
+V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr
The
Output
Application Of Pulse Train to an RC Circuit-Long RC; The
Integrator
+V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr
R
C
May be used to count the
cycles of the given square
train.
The eventual output of this
will be the average value of
the square wave input signal.
Coupling Circuit
Application Of Voltage to a RC Circuit-Long RC
+V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr
The
Output
R
C
Application Of Pulse Train to an RC Circuit-Long RC; The
Coupling Circuit
+V Volts
I/P
Vc
Vr
The entire DC voltage will
be dropped across the
capacitor and only the AC
signal will pass through-
This will ensure effective
isolation between two
amplifier stages.
The eventual output of this
will be the average value of
the square wave input signal.
R
C
Output voltage of the Coupler
I/P
O/P
This sag may be reduced by either
increasing R or C or both.
Capacitor Charging
Capacitor Discharging
Summary
R
C
R
C
R
C
O/P
O/P
O/P
Integrator:
1. Long CR.
2. Output across capacitor.
3. Applications-Analog Pulse counter.
Differentiator:
1. Short CR.
2. Output across resistor.
3. Applications-Pip generator.
Coupling Circuit:
1. Long CR.
2. Output across resistor.
3. Applications-DC isolator.
DC Restoring Circuit-Clamper!
R
C
O/P I/P
R
C
O/P
I/P
C
O/P I/P
The R may be eliminated
& the diode reverse res
maybe used
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Low level clamping to 0 Volts
R
C
O/P
I/P
Exercise
This is a High Level Clamping circuit to Zero Volts;

Draw and label the input and output signals.
Solution
Clamping to Voltages other than 0 V
Exercise
Sketch a circuit with all inputs and output
waveforms which will provide low level
clamping to -7 volts.
Solution
Limiting Circuits
Applications:
Prevent waveforms from exceeding given
values.
Limit amplitudes of waveforms.
Preventing supply voltages from
exceeding thresholds.
Principle:
Forward biased diode low resistance.
Reverse biased diode - Very high
resistance.

Series Limiting
R
I/P
Positive Limiting to Zero Volts
R
I/P
Positive Limiting to Zero Volts
+ 10 V
Parallel Limiting
R I/P
Positive Limiting to Zero Volts
I/P
Positive Limiting to Zero Volts
+ 10 V
R
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Limiters-The rule of the thumb
R
I/P
R I/P
R
I/P
R
Reference Voltage Reference Voltage
Diode
Diode
R
R
K
A
K
K
K
A
A
A
Positive
Limiter
Negative
Limiter
Positive
Limiter
Negative
Limiter
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Major Applications in Radar
Radar positive going PIP generator.
Diode Squarer.

Exercise-
Sketch circuits & waveforms for a:
1. A positive going PIP generator.
2. A diode squarer.
PIP Generator
R
100 V
30 V
Out put
Differentiator Limitor
Diode Squarer
K
K
A
A
Input
Positive
limiting
Negative
limiting
Creation of Square Waves
Used in multiple applications in Radars.
The waves so created need to have very steep
edges.
There are three major waves to create these
square waves:
Use of limiters.
Overdriving transistors.
Schmitt trigger.
Diode Squarer
K
K
A
A
Input
Positive
limiting
Negative
limiting
The lower these values
the better is the
smaller is the rise and
fall times and thus the
steeper the waveform
edges
Overdriven Transistor
Vcc
R
Rb RL
TR 1
Input
Output
Bias point
Limiting is affected by the
Base Emitter Junction
+ 5 V
- 5 V
Exercise
What will be the result if a diode is included in
this circuit between base and emitter?
Squarer with 0 volts bottom voltage
Vcc
R
Rb RL
TR 1
Input
Output
Bias point
K
A
+ 5 V
+ 5 V
+ 0 V
The Schmitt Trigger
Schmitt trigger is a generic name of threshold
circuits with positive feedback having a loop gain > 1.
The circuit is named "trigger" because the output retains its
value until the input changes sufficiently to trigger a change:
In the non-inverting configuration, when the input is higher
than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high;
When the input is below a different (lower) chosen threshold,
the output is low; when the input is between the two, the
output retains its value.
This dual threshold action is called hysteresis and implies
that the Schmitt trigger possess memory and can act as
a bistable circuit (latch).
There is a close relation between the two kinds of circuits
that actually are the same: a Schmitt trigger can be
converted into a latch and v.v., a latch can be converted into
a Schmitt trigger.
Schmitt trigger devices are typically used in open
loop configurations for noise immunity and closed
loop negative feedback configurations to implement bistable
regulators, triangle/square wave generators, etc.

Working
Circuits with hysteresis are based on the
fundamental positive feedback idea:
any active circuit can be made behave as Schmitt
trigger by applying a positive feedback so that
the loop gain is more than one.
The positive feedback is introduced by adding a
part of the output voltage to the input voltage; so,
these circuits contain:
An attenuator (the B box in the figure on the right)
A summer (the circle with "+" inside)
An amplifier acting as a comparator.
There are three specific techniques for
implementing this general idea.
The first two of them are dual versions (series and
parallel) of the general positive feedback system. In
these configurations, the output voltage increases
the effective difference input voltage of the
comparator by decreasing the threshold or
by increasing the circuit input voltage; the threshold
and memory properties are incorporated in one
element.
In the third technique, the threshold and memory
properties are separated.
Circuit Operation
The original Schmitt trigger is based on the basic dynamic
threshold idea that is implemented by a voltage divider with a
switchable upper leg (the collector resistors R
c1
and R
c2
) and a steady
lower leg (R
E
).
T1 acts as a comparator with a differential input (T1 base-emitter
junction) consisting of an inverting (T1 base) and a non-inverting (T1
emitter) inputs.
The input voltage is applied to the inverting input; the output voltage
of the voltage divider is applied to the non-inverting input thus
determining its threshold. The comparator output drives the
second common collector stage T2 (an emitter follower) through the
voltage follower R
1
-R
2
.
The emitter-coupled transistors T1 and T2 actually compose an
electronic double throw switch that switches over the upper legs of
the voltage divider and changes the threshold in a different (to the
input voltage) direction.
This configuration can be considered as a differential amplifier with
series positive feedback between its non-inverting input (T2 base) and
output (T1 collector) that forces the transition process. There is also a
smaller negative feedback introduced by the emitter resistor R
E
.
To make the positive feedback dominate over the negative one and to
obtain a hysteresis, the proportion between the two collector
resistors is chosen R
c1
> R
c2
. Thus less current flows through and less
voltage drop is across R
E
when T1 is switched on than in the case
when T2 is switched on. As a result, the circuit has two different
thresholds in regard to ground (V
-
in the picture).

The Schmitt Trigger Circuit
Vcc
R1
RL1
TR 1
TR 2
RL2
R3
R2
Re
cx
I/P
O/P
Input
Switch on voltage
TR1
Switch off voltage
TR1
Output
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Q & A
List applications of triggering pulses in Radars.
What are the applications of pulse shaping
circuits in radars?
Explain the working of the Schmitt trigger.
Multivibrators
The Multivibrator is an electronic circuit that switches rapidly by means
of positive feedback between two or more states. The circuit is so-called
because its output is rich in harmonics.

There are three types of multivibrator circuit depending on the circuit
operation:

Astable, in which the circuit is not stable in either state it continually switches
from one state to the other.
It does not require an input such as a clock pulse.

Monostable, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable
(transient).
A trigger causes the circuit to enter the unstable state.
After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time.
Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some
external event.
This circuit is also known as a one shot.

Bistable, in which the circuit is stable in either state.
The circuit can be flipped from one state to the other by an external event or trigger.
The bistable multivibrator is simply a latch (flip-flop); it is added to this classification only
for completeness.

The types
A multivibrator consists of two main
components
two passive networks and a bistable circuit,
connected in a common feedback loop.
The networks can be both resistive-capacitive (in
the case of an astable circuit):
A resistive-capacitive and a resistive (monostable),
and both resistive (bistable).
There are two versions of this basic arrangement
(considered below) in the case of astable and
monostable multivibrator (bistable multivibrators are
implemented only according to the first version).

Astable Multivibrator
Basic Mode Of
Operation:
State-1.
State-2
(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Waveforms
Monostable Multivibrator
In the monostable
multivibrator, the one
resistive-capacitive
network (C
2
-R
3
in figure 1)
is replaced by a resistive
network (just a resistor).
The circuit can be thought
as a 1/2 astable
multivibrator. Q2 collector
voltage is the output of
the circuit (in contrast to
the astable circuit, it has a
perfect square waveform
since the output is not
loaded by the capacitor).

(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Waveforms
Bi-Stable Multivibrator
In the bistable multivibrator, both the resistive-
capacitive network are replaced by resistive
networks (just resistors or direct coupling).
This latch circuit is similar to an astable
multivibrator, except that there is no charge or
discharge time, due to the absence of capacitors.
Hence, when the circuit is switched on, if Q1 is on,
its collector is at 0 V. As a result, Q2 gets switched
off. This results in more than half +V volts being
applied to R4 causing current into the base of Q1,
thus keeping it on. Thus, the circuit remains stable
in a single state continuously. Similarly, Q2 remains
on continuously, if it happens to get switched on
first.
Switching of state can be done via Set and Reset
terminals connected to the bases. For example, if
Q2 is on and Set is grounded momentarily, this
switches Q2 off, and makes Q1 on. Thus, Set is
used to "set" Q1 on, and Reset is used to "reset" it
to off state.

(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
Ringing or Blocking oscillators
The blocking oscillator is closely
related to the two-transistor or
two-tube astable circuit, except that
it uses only one amplifying device.
The other is replaced by a pulse
transformer, which provides strong
positive feedback at all frequencies.
As a monostable, it was useful in
the 1950's for producing what were
then short pulses, in the
microsecond range.
It was much faster than the
Abraham-Bloch monostable.
It the transistor era, however, it fell
from grace because it could not be
miniaturized, since it requires a
transformer, and was also rather
hard on transistors
Radar Receivers Design Objectives
High gain-so that very weak echoes can be
amplified.
Low noise from the receiver itself.
High Bandwidth-Due to the pulse shape.
Pulsed Radar Receiver
Factors in Radar Receiver Design
Gain Requirements.
Noise.
Waveguide Mixing.


Automatic Frequency Control
Signal To Noise Ratio (SNR)
Sources of Noise Inside a receiver:
Local oscillator/crystal mixer noise.
Thermal Noise.
Shot Noise.


(For animation connect to the Internet & click on Link above to start the Java Applet)
The Cascode Amplifier
High gain.
High Input impedence.
Low Miller effect.
Used at the input of the radar
receiver.


Reduces
miller
effect by
grounding
TR 2 base.
Is a normal common emitter amplifier but
gives almost no gain due to connection
with TR2 CB configuration. Thus:
No miller effect.
High input impedence.
Positive Going half cycle of
iF
How to Reduce Break Through
Gain Control
Radar Receiver Considerations
To detect the radar pulses.
How video limits can be controlled.
How are video signals applied to the CRT.
Typical Detector Circuit
What should be the value
of R1C1 and why?
The C1R1
C1 charges to
peak value
Diode cut off
C1 discharges
through R1
Positive going
half cycles
removed by
diode
Analog Radars-Video Limit Control
Weak and strong signals both applied to the
CRT.
Too strong a signal-Saturates the screen
(blooming!)
Too weak a signal-Can be missed.
Sensitivity should not be modified since this
will lead to the weaker signals getting
dropped.
Remedy-Apply a video limiting signal.
Limit Control Circuit
R-3 provides bias
current to T1.
Reducing R 3
increases the no
signal bias on TR1.
R 3 is adjusted to
set the limiting
level.

RV 1 adjusted to just cut off.
Vcc Vb is the
limiting voltage.
In absence of input the TR 1 is
biased to take the maximum
collector current with D 1 cutoff.
Negative going pulses will reduce
the value of TR 1 collector current
& thus provide positive going
pulses at the circuit output.

Circuit Operation
Why are blanking pulses required ?
Video signal to
Grid
Blanking
Pulse to
cathode.
Coupling
circuit
elements
Develops a clamping arrangement to ensure that
the low level signals are not lost due to coupling
circuit arrangements.
Bandwidth Requirements
V
Time
Frequency
V
The Effects
The Bandwidth
IF Amplifier Compensation Techniques
Damping.
Over Coupling.
Negative Feedback.
Staggered tuning.

Damping
Can be used to broaden the
response of the tuned
circuit.
Not a favored method since
power drops across the
resistance lowering the
output power.

Damping
resistor
Over-coupling
Seen more in
transistorized
circuits.
Presents alignment
issues if multiple
stages are
employed.
Over-coupling gives rise to the
double humped response.
Negative Feedback
Gain is reduced
but bandwidth is
increased with
negative feedback.
Feedback path.
Staggered Tuning
Each stage is tuned to a separate band
but together they cover a very large
range.
Frequency (MHz)
45 50 55
Effective
bandwidth
Pulse Shapes & Types of Distortion

Video Amplifier Bandwidth Requirements
Normally occurs
due to the
reactance of the
inter-stage
capacitance.
May be reduced in
amplifiers where
direct coupling is
employed.
Normally occurs
due to the shunting
of the
anode/collector
load by the stray
capacitances.
Video Amplifier Response Correction
At the high frequency end the capacitor is
shorted and R2 is out and the only load is R1.

At the low freq end the load increases to R1
+R2 which increases the gain and
compensates for the loss due to the inter-
stage capacitance.
L & C resonate together at a freq higher
than the video band to eliminate the high
freq fall off.
The resonance is done at the higher freq portion of the video band where
the high freq fall off starts to occur.
Video Amplifier Response Correction
L & C resonate together at a freq higher than the video
band and presents a low resistance path.
The Emitter resistance falls.
The gain increases.
The higher frequency gain drop is compensated.
The same result is
obtained by shunting
Re with a capacitor
having a small value.
Summary
1. List at least two applications of each of the circuits that you studied in
this course plan.
2. Explain where in a Radar system are the following used:
Clippers.
Clampers.
Video signals.
Coupling circuits.
Video amplifiers.
3. Why are square wave generators used instead of crystal oscillators?
4. What is a Schmitt trigger and what is its principle of operation?
5. Explain the differences between the following types of Multivibrators:
1. Astable
2. Monostable.
3. Bi stable.