Porcelains Used in Metal Ceramics / Orthodontic Courses by Indian Dental Academy

PORCELAINS USED IN METAL
CERAMICS.
INDIAN DENTAL ACADEMY

Leader in continuing dental education
www.indiandentalacademy.com
INTRODUCTION
Metal ceramic restorations
combine the strength and
accuracy of cast metal with the
esthetics of porcelain.

Indian dental academy

Metal ceramic restoration:
"a fixed restoration that
employs a metal substructure
on which a ceramic veneer is
fused" (Glossary of
Prosthodontic Terms, 1987).

Indian dental academy

A 13- unit metal-ceramic
restoration.
HISTORY/ DEVELOPMENT OF
CERAMICS.
PROPERTIES OF FUSED
PORCELAIN.
TERMINOLOGY
CHEMISTRY & COMPOSITION
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CERAMICS.

METAL CERAMIC SUBSTRUCTURE
BONDING BETWEEN THE METAL
DESIGN & PORCELAIN
PORCELAIN APPLICATION
METHOD
FIRING PROCEDURES
FINISHING & ADJUSTMENTS
Metal ceramic technology.
The word Ceramics is derived
from Greek word keramos
which means pottery or burnt
stuff.
Porcelain in English means
china.
Ceramics
Compounds of one or more metals
with a non metallic element,
usually oxygen. They are formed
of chemical and biochemical
stable substances that are strong,
hard , brittle, and inert non
conductors of thermal and
electrical energy(GPT-7).

Porcelain is defined as

A ceramic material formed of
infusible elements joined by lower
fusing materials. Most dental
porcelain are glasses and are
used in the fabrication of teeth for
dentures, pontics and facings,
metal ceramic restorations,
crowns, inlays, onlays, and other
restorations.

Other designations of metal
ceramics

Porcelain-fused to metal.
Ceramo-metal crown.
Porcelain veneer crown.
Porcelain bonded to metal
crown.

Structure of ceramics
Their atomic structure and resultant
properties depend, not only on
composition, but also on thermal history.

Dental porcelain are glassy materials
Glasses may be regarded as a super cooled
liquids or as non crystalline solids
History
CHINESE ARE CREDITED WITH
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PORCELAIN AS EARLY AS 1000
AD.
DENTRECOLLES, INGRATIED
HIMSELF WITH CHINESE
POTTERS AROUND 1717 IN
ORDER TO LEARN THE COVETED
PORCELAIN MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
IN 1760 FAUCHARD AND OTHERS
HAD REPORTED USING BAKED
ENAMEL.
IN 1774 ALEXIS DUCHATEAU &
NICOLAS DUBOIUS
CONSTRUCTED COMPLETE
DENTURES FROM A MATERIAL
THEY REFERRED TO AS MINERAL
PASTE.

IN 1808 GIUSSEPPANGELO FONZI
DEVISED A METHOD TO MASS
PRODUCE INDIVIDUAL
PORCELAIN DENTURE TEETH

1850 Samuel Stockton was the first to
mass produce these teeth first in
America

Claudius Ash created a artificial tooth
that could be placed over a post on
either a complete denture of FPD. It
was known as tube tooth.
1889 Dr Charles H. Land gave the
idea of fusing porcelain to a thin
platinum foil. he developed low
fusing porcelain in 1898. 1903 he
introduced the porcelain jacket crown
to dentistry

1907 Stockton developed dental
porcelain.
1962 M. Weinstein, S.Katz, and
A.B.Weinstein patented a method to
fabricate the first metal ceramic
crown.

Two of the most important breakthroughs
responsible for the long-standing superb
aesthetic performance and clinical
survivability of metal-ceramic restorations
are the patents of Weinstein and
Weinstein (1962) and Weinstein et al
(1962).
One of these patents described the
formulations of feldspathic porcelain that
allowed systematic control of the sintering
temperature and thermal expansion
coefficient.
The other patent described the
components that could be
used to produce alloys that
bonded chemically to and
were thermally compatible with
feldspathic porcelains
What are ceramics?
Dental ceramics may consist
primarily of glasses ,porcelains,
glass-ceramics.
The properties of ceramics are
customized for dental application
by precise control of the type &
amount of the components used
in their production.

Ceramics are more resistant to
corrosion. Ceramics generally do
not react with most liquids, gases,
alkalies & acids. And they remain
stable over long time.
Dental ceramics exhibit far to
excellent flexure strength & fracture
toughness.

Although ceramics are strong,
temperature-resistant & resilient
these materials are brittle and may
fracture when quickly heated and
cooled.
Dental ceramics are non-metallic
inorganic structures,primarily
containing components of oxygen
with one or more metallic or semi
metallic elements.
Most ceramics are
characterized by their refractory
nature, high hardness,
(relatively low tensile strength
and essentially zero percent
elongation), and chemical
inertness.
Properties of ceramics.
For dental applications a
hardness of a ceramic less than
that of enamel and an easily
polishable surface are desirable
to minimize the wear damage that
can be produced on enamel by
the ceramic surface.

1) Strength.
Porcelain is a material having good
strength. However, it is brittle and
tends to fracture.
The strength of porcelain is usually
measured in terms of its flexure
strength or modulus of rupture.
a) Flexure strength:
It is a combination of compressive,
tensile, as well as shear strength.
Glazed porcelain is stronger than
ground porcelain.
Ground-75.8 Mpa (11,000 psi)
Glazed-141.1 Mpa (20,465 psi)
b) Compressive strength:
Porcelains have good compressive
strength.
331 Mpa (48,000psi)
c) Tensile strength:
Is low
34 MPa (5000psi).
d) Shear strength:
It is low and is due to the ductility
caused by the complex structure of
dental porcelain.
110 Mpa (16000psi).
Factors affecting strength.
1) Composition.
2) Surface integrity: Surface imperfections
like microscopic cracks and porosities
reduce the strength.
3) Firing procedure: Inadequate firing
weakens the structure as vitrification is not
complete. Overfiring also decrease
strength as more of the core gets
dissolved in the fluxes, thereby weakening
the core network. www.indiandentalacademy.com
2) Modulus of elasticity:
Porcelain as high modulus of
elasticity.
69 GPa .
3) Surface hardness:
Porcelain is much harder than natural
teeth.
460 KHN
4) Wear resistance:
Porcelain is more resistant to wear
than natural teeth. Thus, it should not
be placed opposite to natural teeth.
5) Specific gravity:
Is 2.242.
The specific gravity of fired porcelain
is usually less, because of the
presence of air voids. It varies from
2.2 to 2.3.
6) Dimensional stability:
Porcelain is dimensionally stable after
firing.
7) Chemical stability:
It is insoluble and impermeable to oral
fluids. Also it is resistant to most
solvents. However, contact with
hydrofluoric acid causes etching of
the porcelain surface.
8) Esthetic properties:
Are excellent. It is able to match
adjacent tooth structure in
translucence, color and intensity.
9) Biocompatibility.
It is compatible with the oral tissue.
Refers to the ability of a metal
and its veneering porcelain to
contract at similar rates.
The coefficient of thermal
expansion by definition is the
change in length per unit of
original length of a material when
its temperature is raised by 1o K
.

10) Thermal compatibility
Thermal compatibility (contd.)
When the co efficient of thermal
expansion of metal and porcelain
are compatible the tensile stress
that develop during cooling are
insufficient to cause immediate
cracking of porcelain or delayed
cracking after cooling at room
temperature.

Porcelains have coefficient of thermal
expansion between 13.0 and 14.0 X
10-6 and metal between 13.5 and
14.5 X 10-6.
The difference of 0.5 X10-6 in thermal
expansion between metal and
porcelain causes the metal to contract
slightly more than does the ceramic
during cooling after firing the
porcelain.
This puts the ceramic under
slight residual compression
which makes it less sensitive
to applied tensile forces.

Methods of strengthening ceramics
Strengthening occurs through two
mechanism,
1) development of residual
compressive stresses.
2) interruption of crack propagation.
Development of residual compressive
stresses.
1) Ion exchange: (chemical
tempering)
exchange of potassium ions (which is
35% larger) for sodium ions. thus
there is squeezing of the potassium
ion into smaller spaces. This creates
a residual compressive stresses on
the surface of the glass.
Thermal tempering.
By rapidly cooling the surface of the
object while it is hot and in the molten
state. This rapid cooling produces a
layer of rigid glass surrounding a soft
core. As the molten core solidifies ,it
tends to shrink, creates a residual
tensile stress in the core thus leaving
the outer layer in residual
compressive stress.
THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT
MISMATCH:
Ceramic in combination with metal are
heated together .The metal which is
veneered with ceramic has a higher
coefficient of thermal expansion than the
ceramic. Hence on cooling, the metal
contracts more than the ceramics thus
leaving the outer layer, of ceramic in
residual compressive stress.
Interruption of crack propagation.
Two different types of dispersions used to
interrupt crack propagation are:
1) By absorption of energy by the
dispersed tough particle from the crack
and thus depleting its driving force for
propagation.
2) By change of crystal structure under
stress to absorb energy from the crack.
1) Dispersion of a crystalline
phase.
A tough crystalline material like alumina is
added in particulate form. The glass is
toughened and strengthened because the
crack cannot penetrate the alumina
particles as easily as it can propagate in
the glass. Thus the aluminous porcelains
were developed for Porcelain Jacket
Crown. (PJC)
Transformation toughening.
A crystalline material is incorporated that
is capable of undergoing a change in
crystal structure when placed under
stress. The crystalline material used is
termed as partially stabilized zirconia
(PSZ).The refractive index of PSZ is
higher than glass matrix. Thus the PSZ
scatters the light producing an opacifying
effect.
Terminology.
Porcelain-fused-to-metal (PFM): a
popular alternative designation
for the metal ceramic restoration.
Porcelain bonding: a term used to
explain the mechanisms by which
dental porcelain fuses or adheres to a
metal substructure
Coping: the word coping can be used to
identify the metal substructure of single-
unit crowns designed for bonding to
dental porcelain. Copings are made on
a single tooth preparation, which may
be a single unit or attached to pontics
for a fixed partial denture.

Framework: this term is often applied
to fixed partial dentures and identifies
a one-piece substructure composed
on either several copings attached to
a pontic or multiple single units that
are joined together as a single
structure.

Degassing: the process of heat-treating
a cast metal substructure in a porcelain
furnace as one of the preparatory steps
to applying an opaque porcelain.
Subjecting the finished metal to
elevated temperatures (980 to
1,050C) in a reduced atmosphere
(vacuum) or in air reportedly burns off
organic surface impurities and
eliminates entrapped gaseous
contaminants. A newer and perhaps
more appropriate termoxidizinghas
emerged in the literature to describe this
procedure.
Oxidation (or oxidizing): the
process by which a metal
substructure is heated in a
porcelain furnace to produce an
oxide layer for porcelain bonding
as well as to cleanse the
porcelain-bearing surfaces of
contaminants
ADVANTAGES OF DENTAL
PORCELAIN
Dental ceramics are attractive
because of their biocompatibility,
long-term color stability, wear
resistance, and their ability to be
formed into precise shapes.
Disadvantages.
They require costly processing
equipment and specialized
training.
Susceptibility to brittle fracture
at relatively low stresses
The chemical components of dental
porcelain.
Feldspar (K2O Al 2O3-6SiO2 & Na2o
Al2o3-6SiO2)
Quartz (SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Kaolin (Al2O3 -2SiO2 2H2O)
Feldspar
Found as a mix of two substances .
It does not occur in pure form in
nature
Mineral is crystalline and opaque
Color is indefinite and between gray
and pink.

Type of
feldspar
Chemical
formula
Other
names
Properties uses
Potassiu
m
aluminiu
m
silicate.
(K
2
O.Al
2
O
3
.6Si
O
2
)
orthocla
se or
potash
feldspar
1.Reduces the
fluidity of the molten
materials
2.helps to maintain
the form of the
porcelain buildup
3.adds translucent
qualities to fired
restorations.
Found in
majority
of the
porcelain
systems
Sodium
aluminu
m
silicate
(Na
2
O.
Al
2
O
3
.
6SiO
2
)
albite or
sodium
feldspar
.
1.Lowers fusion
temperature of the
porcelain.
Less
preferred

Lime
feldspar
CaO.2
Al
2
O
3
.2
SiO
2
On heating it becomes glassy and
fuses at 1290 C, on overheating it
may loose its shape .
Impurities : Mica
Iron it is important to
remove it as its oxides act as strong
coloring agents.

Removal of impurities
Iron-
manually only light colored pieces of
feldspar are selected
Feldspar is grounded into fine powder
and vibrated down inclined planes
surrounded by induction magnets
Primarily responsible for forming
glass matrix
Functions
Glass modifiers such as the oxides of
potassium, sodium, and calcium acts
as fluxes to increase a porcelains
coefficient of thermal expansion.
The fluxes increase the porcelains
coefficient of thermal expansion by
breaking up oxygen crosslinking.
Primarily responsible for
forming glass matrix
Has a fusion temperature

Silica (Quartz or Flint) SiO
2
SiO
2
Silica contributes stability to the
mass of porcelain during heating
by providing a framework for the
other ingredients.
Also acts to strengthen the
porcelain.

Functions
KAOLIN (Al2 o3-2sio22H2o)
It is deposited along the banks and at the

bottom of streams in the form of clay.
Only purest form of clay are used for

dental porcelain.

Preparation of clay
Repeated washing until all foreign
materials are separated.
Allowed to settle.
Dried and screened.
Nearly white powder is obtained.

Properties of clay
I. Its gives OPAQUENESS to porcelain
II. MOULDABLE :On mixing with water it
becomes sticky and aids in forming a
workable mass of the porcelain during
molding.
III. Clay-water suspension maintains its
shape during firing in a furnace.
IV. On subjecting to high heat it adheres to
the framework of Quartz particles and
shrinks considerably.

Little or no kaolin is found is
modern day low fusing
porcelain.
Kaolin is not used in enamel
powder as it will decrease its
translucency.

Alumina.(Al2o3)

The hardest and perhaps the
strongest oxide.
Its CTE is similar to the low fusing
porcelains.
It also strengthens the porcelain.

Manufacturing of ceramics
powder
Fritting.
The process of blending, melting and
quenching the glass components is
termed fritting.
All the raw mineral powders are mixed
together in a refractory crucible and
heated till a molten mass is formed.
It is then quenched in water.
It immediately breaks into fragments and
this is termed the frit.

Frits are ground to the specific particle
size established by individual
manufacturers for their particular brand of
porcelain.

TOOTH PREPARATION FOR
THE METAL CERAMIC
RESTORATION
Depth
orientation
grooves flat
end tapered
diamond.
Make at least
two vertical
cuts in the
incisal portion
of the facial
surface.
Next align the
flat end tapered
diamond with
the gingival
portion of the
facial surface.
Sink the side of
the diamond into
the mesiodistal
center of the
facial
surface,maintain
the instrument
alignment parallel
to the gingival
surface of the
facial segment.
Make two incisal
orientation grooves
that are 2mm
deep.The diamond
should be parallel to
the incisal edge
faciolingally.
Incisal
reduction is
done with the
flat end tapered
diamond.
Facial
reduction;
incisal half,flat
end tapered
diamond.
If there sound
tooth structure
inter proximally,
wing
preparation is
done.
Begin the lingual
reduction with the
small round
diamond with
diameter of
1.4mm. Sink this
instrument into
the lingual tooth
structure up to
0.7mm.
Lingual axial reduction
torpedo diamond and carbide
finishing bur.
Lingual
reduction is
done with the
small wheel
diamond.
Smooth the entire
facial surface with
no.171 bur .Round
over the any sharp
angles on the incisal
angle or along the
edges of the incisal
notches with no.171
bur.
Components of the metal
ceramic restoration

Two major components:
a metal substructure and a porcelain
veneer.
The surface oxide layer that lies
between the metal and the porcelain
veneer could be considered a
separate component, but it is an
integral part of the casting alloy
substructure.
The basic components of a traditional
porcelain kit include
1.opaque porcelain.
2.dentin porcelains
3.enamel porcelains
Modifiers, stains & glazes.
Newest products has high fusing
shoulder porcelains.

The metal substructure
Conventional low-fusing dental
porcelain lacks the strength
required of an all-porcelain
restoration, so a metal substructure
is added to support the porcelain
veneer.
The thickness of the metal coping
can vary, depending on the type of
casting alloy used and the amount
of tooth structure reduced by the
dentist.
The oxide layer

Most metal ceramic alloys are
oxidized after the porcelain-
bearing area of the restoration has
been properly finished and
cleaned.
The metal oxides that form on the
alloy's surface during this heat-
treatment procedure play a key role
in bonding the dental porcelain to
the underlying metal substructure.
Because noble elements do not
oxidize, an alloy's base metal
constituents are principally
responsible for forming this oxide
layer.

Differences in alloy composition
require that oxidation techniques be
alloy specific

Ideally this oxidation should be no
more than a discrete, monomolecular
film on the alloy's surface for all metal
ceramic alloys, irrespective of
compositional differences.
Opaque porcelain layer
These porcelains are made opaque by the
addition of insoluble oxides, such as
tin oxide (SnO2),
titanium oxide (TiO2),
zirconium oxide (ZrO2),
cerium oxide (CeO2),

Opaque porcelain layer contd.
oxide, and
rubidium oxide,
barium zinc oxide.
Such oxides have high refractive
indices, so they scatter light.

Composition on chemical
analysis
Between 8% and 15% of an opaque
powder is composed of metallic
oxides, and some particles may be
less than 5 um in size.
Even small differences in particle size
distribution are thought to influence
the ability of opaques to mask the
color of a metal substructure.
The opaque porcelains three major
functions:
(1) to establish the porcelain-metal
bond,
(2) to mask the dark color of the
metal substructure, and
(3) to initiate the development of
the selected shade of porcelain.


A uniform thickness of 0.2 to 0.3
mm generally is regarded as ideal.

That masking power is influenced
by the amount and the color of the
oxidized (degassed) metal casting
(Naylor, 1986)
A casting alloy of a different
composition might generate a thick,
dark oxide layer (Naylor, 1986) and
require a thicker opaque covering.
The thickness of the opaque layer
needed to veneer the metal and
mask the surface oxides differs
among brands of porcelain and
even varies for different shades
within the same porcelain system
Body porcelains

Body porcelain collectively describes
four principal types of porcelain
powders used to recreate the "body" of
a restoration: dentin (body or gingival),
enamel (or incisal), translucent, and
modifier.
These body porcelains are mixed with
either distilled water or a special liquid
(provided with the porcelain kit) that
helps to prevent the buildup from drying
out rapidly. www.indiandentalacademy.com
They are applied directly over the fired
opaque layer .
The dentin, enamel, translucent, and
modifier powders all have the same
chemical and physical properties, they
may be intermixed freely if custom
shading is desired.
They differ in appearance in the fired
state because of variations in the
amount and type of metallic oxide
pigments each contains.

The dentin porcelain veneer

The major color contribution is derived
from the pigmented metal oxides in the
dentin body porcelain
It is this initial layer of dental porcelain
that imparts the dentin shade
associated with, but not confined to, the
gingival two thirds of a tooth.
The dentinal layer is overbuilt slightly,
cut back, and overlaid with enamel
porcelain in those sections of the
restoration where greater translucency
is desired.
For more accurate shade
duplication, estimates of the
combined thickness of fired dentin
and enamel porcelains range from
a minimum of 0.5 to 1.0 mm to a
maximum thickness of 1.5 to 2.0
mm

For uniformity of shade and maximum
strength, it is desirable to have an even
thickness of porcelain covering the
metal substructure.
The minimum total thickness of
porcelain may be between 1.2 to 1.3
mm at the middle one third of the
restoration and 1.5 to 1.6 mm at the
incisal edge (Yamamoto, 1985).
ENAMEL PORCELAIN VENEER
Enamel porcelains are more
translucent than dentin porcelains.
The enamel porcelains are usually in
the violet to grayish range & impart a
combination of true translucency &
the illusion of the translucency by
virtue of their grayish or some times
bluish appearance.

When fired, enamel porcelains are more
translucent than dentin porcelains
(McLean, 1979).
They also have a more restricted range
of shades. A typical porcelain system
may provide only four or five bottles of
enamel powders to cover the entire
range of shades in the kit.
Translucent porcelains
Translucent porcelains are not
transparent, they do not allow the
transmission of all light.
They are applied as a veneer over nearly
the entire surface of a typical porcelain
buildup.
This veneer imparts depth and a natural
enamel-like translucency without
substantially altering the body shade that
is overlaid.

These porcelains are more color concentrated &
were designed to aid in the achieving internal
color modifications.
They are used to distinguish the dentin, enamel
& translucent porcelains, because they have the
same basic physical & chemical properties.
All these powders are basically same materials,
they do differ in the appearance because of the
modifiers.

BODY MODIFIERS
Stain powders contain less silica or
alumina & more sodium & potassium
oxides.
They contain high concentration of
metallic oxides.
They are created by mixing the
metallic oxides with lower fusion point
glasses
STAINS
GLAZES
Glazes are generally colorless, low fusing
porcelains.
They possess considerable fluidity at high
temperatures.
They fill small surface porosities &
irregularities. when fired helps to recreate
the external glazy appearance of the
natural tooth

GLAZE (Contd.)
A glazed ceramic surface is
generally considered beneficial by
increasing the fracture resistance
and reducing the potential
abrasiveness of ceramic surfaces
Color coding
By convention dentin powders are pink
and enamel powders are blue.
These organic colors burn off during firing
procedure and do not affect the shade of
the fired restoration in any way.
Some manufacturers color code the
distilled water instead of the powder.e.g.
pencraft porcelain
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CERAMICS

Different types of dental ceramics are
available These include core ceramic,
liner ceramic, margin ceramic,
opaque dentin (also, body or gingival)
ceramic, dentin ceramic, enamel
(incisal) ceramic, stain ceramic, glaze
ceramic, and addition ceramic
These products can be
classified in several possible
ways according to their: (1) use
or indications (anterior,
posterior, crowns, veneers, post
and cores, FPDs, stain ceramic,
and glaze ceramic);
(2) composition (pure alumina,
pure zirconia, silica glass, leucite-
based glass-ceramic, and lithia-
based glass-ceramic
(3) processing method (sintering,
partial sintering and glass infiltration
,CAD-CAM, and copy-milling);

Microstructure (glass, crystalline,
and crystal-containing glass);
Translucency (opaque,
translucent, and transparent);
Fracture resistance; or
Abrasiveness
Based on the method of fabrication
1. Condensation porcelains using
condensation and sintering
2. Castable ceramics Dicor-Dentsply
3. Pressable ceramics
4. Machinable ceramics
5. Infiltrated ceramics
6. Injection molded ceramics Cerestore
1) Regular feldspathic porcelain
2) Aluminous porcelain
3) Metal bonding porcelain.

Classification (Mclean)
Based on their fusion temperature (Phillips,1982)
type Fusing
temperature
range
uses
High fusing
porcelains-
1288 to 1371
C
1200-1400

used for
manufacturing
denture teeth .
Both are
similar in
composition
and
microstructure.
Medium fusing
Porcelains-
1093 to 1260
C
1050-1200
for all ceramic
restorations
and
prefabricated
pontics.
Low fusing
porcelains-
871 to 1066 C
800-1050
for metal
ceramic and all
ceramic.
METAL SUB STRUCTURE
DESIGN.
Majority of the porcelain-to-metal bond
failures occur as a direct result of improper
substructure design
Errors in the preparation of the metal
ceramic substructure frequently go
unnoticed until the brittle porcelain veneer
fails in service.

TYPES

FUNCTIONS.

DESIGN.

METAL SUB STRUCTURE
DESIGN.
Types of metal ceramic system.
A. Cast metal ceramic alloys:
1.Noble-metal alloy systems:
High gold - a) Gold platinum palladium.
Low gold - b) Gold palladium silver.
Gold free - c) Palladium silver.
2.Base metal alloys systems:
Nickel chromium alloy.
Cobalt chromium alloys ( rarely used in
ceramic bonding).
B. Foil copings:

a) Bonded platinum foil coping.
b) Swaged gold alloy foil coping.
a) Bonded platinum foil coping:
Another method of bonding porcelain to
metal is the use of tin oxide coatings on
platinum foil.
The method consists of bonding
aluminous porcelain to platinum foil
copings.
Attachment of the porcelain is secured by
electroplating the foil with a thin layer of tin
and then oxidizing it in a furnace.
The objective of this type of
restoration is to improve esthetics.
The thicker cast metal coping that is
normally used is replaced by a thinner
platinum foil, thus allowing more
space for the porcelain.
b) Swaged Gold Alloy Foil Coping:
A laminated gold alloy supplied in fluted
shape is also used as an alternative to the
cast metal coping.
The foil is swaged onto the die and flame
sintered to form a coping.
An interfacial alloy powder is applied
and fired and the coping is then veneered
with porcelain.
Primary functions:-

The casting provides fit of the
restoration to the prepared tooth.

The metal forms oxides that bond
chemically to the dental porcelain.

The coping serves as a rigid
foundation to which the brittle
porcelain can be attached for
increased strength & support.
The sub structure restores the
tooth's proper emergence profile.

Secondary functions.
Metal occlusal & lingual articulating
surfaces generally less destructive to
the enamel of the opposing natural
tooth.
Fabrication of the restoration with
minimal occlusal clearance has more
potential for the success with metal
substructure than all ceramic alloys.
Occlusal surfaces can be easily
adjusted & repolished intraorally.
The metal axial walls can support
the removable partial denture.

Metal sub structure design
Majority of the porcelain-to-metal
bond failures occur as a direct result
of improper substructure design
Errors in the preparation of the metal
ceramic substructure frequently go
unnoticed until the brittle porcelain
veneer fails in service.

Sub structure design (contd)
Hence necessary to understand
the essentials of proper
substructure design, since it will
help to ensure the longevity of the
final prosthesis.

Principles of substructure
design.
Are the occlusal contacts to be
in metal or porcelain?
Occlusion in metal requires less tooth
reduction (1 to 1.5 mm).
Approximately 2 mm of occlusal
reduction is necessary for posterior
teeth and 1 to 1.5 mm for anterior
teeth requiring porcelain on occluding
surfaces.
Metal surfaces can be more easily
adjusted and repolished at chair side
without adversely affecting the
restoration.
On the other hand, removing the
glaze of a metal ceramic restoration
during intraoral adjustments weakens
the porcelain greatly

2. Are the centric occlusal
contacts 1.5 to 2mm from the
porcelain-metal junction?
occlusal contacts when placed
directly on or close to the porcelain-
metal junction, there is an increased
likelihood the porcelain will chip or
fracture at that point of contact .
Porcelain is strongest under
compression and weakest under
tension, so situations that induce
tensile stresses in the ceramic during
function are more apt to promote
bond failures
A substructure should be designed so
the functional incisal or occlusal
contacts are located at least 1 .5 mm
and perhaps as much as 2 mm from
the metalporcelain junction.

When the
anterior teeth
contact in the
incisal region,it is
often necessary
to consider a
design with
lingual surface in
porcelain to avoid
functioning on or
over the
porcelain metal
junction.
Do not
design the
sub structure
so contact
occurs at the
porcelain
metal
junction.

When the anterior
teeth occlude in the
gingival half of the
maxillary teeth or
when the lingual
tooth reduction is
less than 1mm it is
best to design the
sub structure with
occlusion in the
metal.
3.Are the interproximal contacts
to be restored in metal or
porcelain?
The inter proximal contact areas of
anterior teeth, and at least the mesial
contacts of posterior teeth, are
frequently restored in porcelain
with porcelain inter proximal contact
areas would be more esthetic,
particularly with anterior teeth.

It is important to provide proper metal
support to a porcelain marginal ridge
in the substructure design to prevent
possible fracture
However, the distal inter proximal
contacts of posterior teeth may be
restored in either metal or porcelain
because these areas are not as
critical esthetically.
4.Are the cusp tips (or incisal
edges )adequately supported by
the metal substructure with no
more than 2mm of unsupported
porcelain?
The ultimate goal of any substructure
is to support an even thickness (1mm
minimum, 2 mm maximum) of the
porcelain veneer.
If this maximum thickness is
exceeded, the ceramic layer may no
longer be properly supported,
resulting in a catastrophic failure at
the cusp tip or incisal edge

5. Is the substructure thick
enough to provide a rigid
foundation for the porcelain
veneer?
Areas to be veneered with
porcelain must be at least 0.3 mm
thick.
with base metal alloys, the
coping can be reduced to 0.2 mm
or less and still be strong enough
to support the porcelain

How does dental porcelain bond to
metal?
(1) van der Waals forces (Lacy, 1977),
(2) mechanical retention,
(3) compression bonding, and
(4) direct chemical bonding (Lacy,
1977; McLean, 1980;
van der Waals forces

The attraction between charged
atoms that are in intimate contact yet
do not actually exchange electrons is
derived from van der Waals forces.
These secondary forces are
generated more by a physical
attraction between charged particles
Van der Waalsforces are generally
weak.
The better the wetting of the
metal surface, the greater the van
der Waals forces.
porcelain's adhesion to metal can
be diminished or enhanced by
alterations in the surface
character (texture) of the
porcelain-bearing surface on the
substructure
van der Waals forces are only
minor contributors to the overall
attachment process.

The porcelain-bearing area of a metal
casting contains many microscopic
irregularities into which opaque
porcelain may flow when fired.
Air abrading the metal with aluminum
oxide is believed to enhance
mechanical retention further by
eliminating surface irregularities
(stress concentrations)
Mechanical retention
Mechanical retention's
contribution to bonding may be
relatively limited.
Dental porcelain does not require
a roughened area to bond to
metal but some surface
roughness is effective in
increasing bonding forces
Compression bonding

Dental porcelain is strongest under
compression and weakest under
tension; hence, if the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the metal
substrate is greater than that of the
porcelain placed over it, the porcelain
should be placed under compression
on cooling
the metal contracts faster than the
porcelain but is resisted by the
porcelain's lower coefficient of
thermal expansion.
This difference in contraction
rates creates tensile forces on the
metal and corresponding
compressive forces on the
porcelain.
Chemical bonding

The single most significant
mechanism of porcelain-metal
attachment is a chemical bond
between dental porcelain and the
oxides on the surface of the metal
substructure
The two hypothesis that explains
chemical bonding are
1, The sandwich theory
the oxide layer is permanently
bonded to the metal substructure on
one side while the dental porcelain
remains on the other
The oxide layer itself is
sandwiched in between the metal
substructure and the opaque
porcelain. This "sandwich" theory
is undesirable in that a thick oxide
layer might exist that would
weaken the attachment of metal
to porcelain
The second, and more likely, theory
suggests that the surface oxides
dissolve, or are dissolved by, the
opaque layer. The porcelain is then
brought into atomic contact with the
metal surface for enhanced wetting
and direct chemical bonding so metal
and porcelain share electrons.
(McLean, 1980; Yamamoto, 1985)
Chemical "bonding" is generally
accepted as the primary
mechanism in the porcelain-metal
attachment process
The oxidation (degassing) process
After the cast metal ceramic
castings have been properly
finished with uncontaminated
carbide burs or ceramic abrasives
the castings are heat-treated in a
porcelain furnace (in air or a
vacuum) to a designated
temperature for a specified period
of time (Naylor, 1986).

The heat-treatment process
allows specific oxides to form on
the metal surface. These oxides
are responsible for the chemical
porcelain- metal "bond."
A high-gold-content alloy contains
oxidizable trace elements such as tin,
indium, and iron to produce an
adherent oxide layer. Because
elements like gold and the other noble
metals do not oxidize, it is often
necessary to hold these castings at
temperature for several minutes to
permit the non noble trace elements
to form the oxide layer
The base metal alloys readily
oxidize, but trace elements are
still added in an effort to form a
particular type of oxide for a
stable bond .
The oxidation procedure may be
carried out in a vacuum to
minimize the amount of oxidation,
and the hold time is often reduced
or omitted.
Allowing certain base metal alloys
to oxidize in air, or to remain at
temperature, could lead to over
oxidation. An excessively thick
and non-adherent oxide layer is
often responsible for porcelain
bond failures
A properly oxidized casting often
has a distinctive appearance in
terms of color and character
(texture, thickness, etc).
That appearance of a properly
oxidized metal substructure differs
among alloy systems and may
also differ among alloys within the
same system.
Some manufacturers do not
recommend an oxidation/
degassing step; instead, they
advocate minimizing the number
of firings to which the casting is
subjected.
Removing the oxide layer
Two principal methods for
removing oxides are
Acid treatment (chemical method)
Nonacid treatment (mechanical
method).
Acid treatment
(chemical method)
Different types of acids are used to reduce
or eliminate surface oxides, including
hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, and dilute
sulfuric acid.
The potential hazards of these acids
require that they be stored and used in
clearly marked, resealable plastics bottles.
It is advisable to wear protective rubber
gloves and eye protection during all
handling procedures.
A rubber-tipped instrument should be
used to place oxidized castings into
the acid appropriate for the alloy.
Place the covered container in an
ultrasonic unit for the time
recommended by the alloy
manufacturer.
Remove the casting and thoroughly
rinse it under tap water. For the final
cleaning step, put the coping in a
container of distilled water and clean
it ultrasonically for 10 to 15 minutes.

Nonacid treatment
(Mechanical method)
Castings can be air-abraded with pure, 50-
um aluminum oxide (Al2o3) that is non-
recycled.
Steam clean or ultrasonically clean the
casting in distilled water for 10 to 15
minutes before applying the opaque
porcelain.

Porcelain-metal bond failures
Metal ceramic alloys, whether noble
or base metals, all oxidize differently
because of variations in their
composition.
If the oxidation process is not
performed properly, the subsequent
porcelain-metal bond may be weak
and may lead to bond failure.
Porcelain delamination
With base metal alloys, the
separation of the porcelain veneer
from the metal substrate can be
more a loss of the "attachment" of
the oxide layer that is either too
thick or is poorly adherent to the
metal substructure.
Porcelain delamination contd
Overoxidation has been a particular
problem with the heavily oxidizing
base metal alloys and has been
linked to their increased tendency for
bond failures .
Bond failures are not caused by a loss
of the chemical bond between the
ceramic and the oxide layer
on the contrary, the porcelain might
remain visibly attached to the oxides
but the oxide layer may be so thick that
the bond is lost through it .
This particular problem is caused by
the formation of a thick and poorly
adherent oxide layer.

Classification of bond failures in
metal-ceramics.
(Given by O Brien (1977).
1) Metal Porcelain:
Fracture leaves a clean surface of
metal. Seen when metal surface is devoid
of oxides. May also be due to
contaminated or porous metal surface.
Usually occurs in high gold alloys.
2) Metal oxide Porcelain:
Porcelain fractures at metal oxide
surface, leaving oxide firmly attached to
metal .Seen more often in base metal alloy
systems.
3) Metal Metal Oxide:
Metal oxide breaks away from the
metal and is left attached to the porcelain.
Seen commonly in base metal alloy
systems due to over production of
chromium and nickel oxides.
4) Metal Oxide Metal Oxide:
Fracture occurs through the metal
oxide. Results from overproduction of
oxide causing sandwich effect between
metal and porcelain. Occurs during the
usage of nickel-chromium alloys.
5) Cohesive within Metal:
More common in bridges where the
joint area breaks. Rarely seen in single
crowns.

6) Cohesive within Porcelain:
Tensile failure within porcelain. Bond
strength exceeds strength of porcelain.
Seen in high gold content alloys.
Excessive
absorption of
oxides by the
porcelain can lower
the porcelain's
coefficient of
thermal expansion,
alter the final
shade (cause a
graying or bluing),
or do both (Naylor,
1986
Changes in the
shade of the
porcelain may
not be noticeable
with posterior
restorations,
particularly if a
greater thickness
of porcelain
masks the dark
oxides
Incompatible materials
Further more, bond failures are not always
attributable to improper oxidation but may
actually be caused by a physical
incompatibility between the porcelain and
the metal substructure. The difference in
the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
veneering porcelain and the metal ceramic
alloy may be slight yet sufficient to be
responsible for cracking of the ceramic
veneer or substantial enough to result in
porcelain debonding.
Overoxidation/underoxidation
The oxidation procedure varies for alloys
of different compositions.
Careful processing followed by an
assessment of the postoxidation
appearance of each casting will ensure
that the procedure was accomplished
correctly.
Castings that are either overoxidized or
underoxidized should be reprocessed
accordingly until a uniform oxide of the
desired color and thickness recommended
for the alloy involved has formed.


Contamination
castings that demonstrate some form
of contamination may not have to be
remade but by simply refinishing a
substructure's porcelain-bearing
surface may be all that is necessary
when surface debonding becomes
evident. Uncontaminated finishing
materials are used to prevent this.

Simply
refinishing this
casting removed
the surface and
subsurface
contamination
and resulted in
an appropriate
porcelain-metal
bond.

Applying Porcelain to the Metal
Substructure
The application of dental porcelain to
the metal substructure is the single
most demanding procedure in the
fabrication of a metal ceramic
restoration.
As a rule, the skills needed for this
particular process require the most
effort to perfect.
Instruments and equipment
Brushes
A variety of brush sizes and styles are
available in porcelain instrument kits, the
most important of which are the brushes
used for building or stacking porcelain.
. The size range varies from a no. 4 to a no. 8.
Sable brushes are the standard because
they permit easy manipulation of the
porcelain.

Another frequently used instrument is a
large no.10 brush, often referred to as a
whipping brush
A basic instrument kit should also include
flat brushes with relatively stiff bristles.
These large- and small-sized brushes
should be kept dry because they are used
exclusively to remove porcelain particles
from non porcelain-bearing areas and from
inside the substructure prior to firing.
Very small no. 0 to no. 000 sable
brushes are required for the
placement of stains or small
increments of porcelain. These
brushes are useful anywhere
maximum control is necessary
Carving Instruments
Porcelain carving instruments, designed for
shaping and carving porcelain buildups.
Carving instruments serve two principal
functions.
1.Those with a serrated handle can be
used to condense wet porcelain.
2.Instruments with blades, as well as the
small discoid carver, can be used to build
(stack) porcelain, shape the buildup, and
carve the porcelain.
Spatula
Small, flexible, metal spatula is used
to dispense and mix porcelain.
Any small metal fragments generated
during mixing can then be introduced
into the wet porcelain as
contaminants.
This metal debris can dramatically discolor
the mix as well as the fired porcelain
restoration. With careful use, however, the
metal mixing spatula need not be abraded.
But for added safety, a glass mixing rod is
often substituted for the metal spatula to
avoid this problem altogether.

Razor knives
Another necessity in the basic set of
instruments is some type of razor knife,
equipped with a thin, flexible blade for
carving the porcelain buildup.
Hemostat
A small, straight or curved hemostat is
needed to hold the work during the
opaquing process and during porcelain
additions and condensation.
Hemostats can be modified to hold the
metal substructure securely without
damaging the metal margins. However, an
18-gauge handle added to the lingual collar
provides a convenient, safe, yet secure grip
for removing the restoration from the
working cast and holding it during
condensation
Glass or ceramic mixing slab
Finally, either a glass slab, ceramic tile, or
ceramic tray can serve as a plate for
mixing and storing the porcelain during the
buildup procedure. Initially, a small mixing
slab will suffice (Fig 8-9a).

As modifiers are added and more
complex buildups are attempted,a larger
working surface will be required to
accommodate all the different porcelain
mixtures
PORCELAIN CONDENSATION.
Condensing dental porcelain actually
refers to any procedure that results in the
unfired porcelain particles being tightly
packed on to themselves.
As the particles moves closer together, the
air and moisture previously occupying the
space between the individual particles
move to the surface of the buildup.
Any liquid or air that remains trapped in
the unfired porcelain will form voids in the
unfired ceramic.
The presence of porosity in fired porcelain
weakens the restoration and impairs its
esthetic qualities.
In well-condensed porcelain there is
reduction in the amount of firing shrinkage.
Methods of porcelain condensation.
1) capillary action.
2) vibration
3) spatulation
4) whipping
5) dry powder addition.
Capillary action.
The technique of blotting a wet
built up with absorbent paper
uses surface tension.
Vibration.
Is created by passing a serrated
instrument over the neck of a
hemostat in which the restoration is
held.
Vibration is a means to mechanically
draw additional moisture to the
surface where it can then be removed
by blotting paper.
Spatulation.
A spatula is used to apply ,
then rub the porcelain built up
to force the liquid to the
surface.
Whipping.
A no. 10 sable brush is rapidly
moved over the porcelain surface
with a whipping motion. The
whipping motion brings the liquid
to the outer surface for blotting.
Dry powder addition.
Requires dry porcelain powder be
sprinkled on an area of wet
porcelain, using the existing liquid
to moisten the powder addition.
Opaquing the metal
substructure

The areas of the substructure that will
be veneered with porcelain must not
be touched and should be protected
from dust, oils from the skin, and any
other forms of contamination

Applying opaque porcelain
glass rod technique

First wet the oxidized metal substructure
to be veneered with distilled water and
gently vibrate the casting to thoroughly wet
the surface.
A wet surface makes porcelain application
easier and reduces the possibility of
trapping air between the porcelain and the
metal. The thin film of water also will draw
the opaque particles onto the metal
surface.
Use the pointed end of the glass rod to
apply the opaque porcelain. Begin by
opaquing the most convex portion of the
coping Move the opaque toward the
porcelain-metal junction from one
interproximal area to the other and
cover the incisal edge.
Glass rod technique.
Then move the opaque over the incisal
edge to cover the porcelain-bearing
surface on the lingual aspect. Once the
porcelain-bearing areas are completely
covered, lightly tap the hemostat and the
porcelain will settle into any concavities
If, during the opaque application,
areas of opaque appear rough and
irregular, lightly tap the hemostat
handle or move the serrations on a
carver across the hemostat in a
sawing motion.
The vibrations created by either of
these procedures will act to
condense the wet porcelain into a
more uniform layer.

Excess moisture should be removed
before the opaque is applied to the metal.
Gently blend the opaque at the porcelain-
metal junction.
Lightly tap the hemostat and dry the
opaque by placing it in front of an open
porcelain furnace muffle.

Dry the opaque layer
by exposing it to the
heat radiating from
the porcelain muffle.
A properly fired
(sintered)
opaque layer
should have a
sheen or
eggshell glisten.
If a second application of opaque
porcelain is required, lightly wet the
opaqued surface with opaque liquid.
Apply the second opaque porcelain
layer in the same manner as the first.
Keep this second layer as thin and
uniform as possible.

Applying opaque porcelain
brush technique

Simply mix the
opaque porcelain
.Use the tip of
porcelain brush to lift
a portion of the mixed
opaque

Apply the porcelain on the most
convex part of the oxidized coping.
Repeat the process several times
until the porcelain-bearing area is
completely covered with porcelain.
Mixing dentin porcelains

The technique for mixing body
porcelains is same as that used
to mix opaque porcelains in that a
glass rod is preferred to a metal
spatula and the liquid is carefully
added to the powder to prevent
the entrapment of air.

Mix the body
powders (dentin
and enamel) with
the
recommended
liquid (Vita VMK
68 porcelain and
modeling liquid )

When properly
mixed, dentin
porcelain should
have a
smooth,cream
consistency.

If too much liquid is
added to the mix,
use a tissue or
blotting paper to
remove excess
liquid until the
proper consistency
is achieved.
Appling dentin porcelain.
The dentin porcelain buildup
procedure is to apply and condense
enough porcelain to create a
restoration that is 10% to 15% large
than normal.
This overbuilding will accommodate
the enamel veneer that will be placed
over the dentin layer and help to
compensate for shrinkage of the
porcelain. A high quality sable brush
is preferred to create the porcelain
buildup
The dentin built up technique.
Return the
cleaned,
opaqued coping
to the master
cast.
To minimize the
entrapment of air in
the porcelain,
move the tip of the
pointed brush
through the mixed
dentin porcelain
and remove the
brush with the
dentin porcelain
captured on the
brush
Apply the
porcelain to the
most convex
surface (midfacial
area) on the
restoration.
Coax the porcelain
toward the
interproximal and
incisal areas. Add
more porcelain to
the facial surface
and use a light
tapping motion to
move the porcelain
along the
porcelain-metal
junction.
Move the porcelain
down to the incisal
edge and lightly blot
the buildup to
condense the
porcelain on the
substructure. place
the additional dentin
porcelain in the incisal
region and move it
from one
interproximal area to
the other.
Control the flow of
the material and
condense the
buildup by
periodically blotting
the wet porcelain
with the tissue. use
light gingival-to-
incisal strokes on
the facial surface
to create the
desired facial
contour.
Add additional
porcelain to the
incisal aspect of
the incisal edge.
Add additional
porcelain to
complete the
mesial and distal
corners.

Cutting back the dentin buildup

With the buildup complete, dentin
porcelain as to be removed from those
areas of the crown where you would like to
have enamel porcelain. The procedure of
removing dentin porcelain for enamel
placement is referred to as the "dentin
cutback."
If dentin porcelain is overbuilt(A), the amount of
dentin remaining after the cutback may also be
incorrect.
When the restoration has the correct
anatomical contours and is slightly
overbuilt(A) by 10% to 15%, the dentin
cutback will also be correct.
With a razor
knife cut back
the incisal edge
from between 1
to 1.5 mm.
Dentin cut back technique
Remove dentin
porcelain at the
mesial
interproximal line
angle. Extend the
cut to the junction
of the middle and
gingival one thirds
for younger
patients.
Cut across the
middle one third.
Stop the cut
back at the distal
interproximal
area.
At the distal
interproximal line
angle, make a cut
from the incisal edge
toward the gingival
one third as far as
required for the
esthetics .Then cut
back the middle one
third of the facial
surface as necessary.
Examine the
restoration from
an incisal view
for symmetry
and adequacy of
the cutback.
Smooth the
cutback areas
with the
porcelain brush
so the transitions
from dentin to
enamel porcelain
are gradual.
For younger
patients ,develop
mamelons.With a
pointed brush
,create two
depressions on the
facial surface with
vertical strokes
from incisal to
gingival.
Mixing the enamel
porcelain.
Glass rod is used
to mix the powder
and liquid .The
enamel mix is
slightly wetter than
the dentin mix to
facilitate its
addition to a
previously applied
and condensed
dentin layer.
The mixed enamel
porcelain should have
a consistency that
permits it to be readily
picked up by a
properly pointed
porcelain brush.
With a pointed
brush, apply
enamel porcelain
to one corner of
the cutback.
Add more enamel
porcelain and
move it across the
facial surface in the
incisal one third.
Push the wet mix
toward the middle
one third of the
crown and work it
into the opposite
interproximal line
angle.
Blend the enamel
porcelain at the
junction of the
middle and gingival
one thirds and
begin to establish
the incisal edge
and condense the
porcelain by
blotting
periodically.
With additional
enamel porcelain,
complete the
incisal edge length
and the mesial-
incisal line angle.
Work your way
along the incisal
edge to create
more of a distal-
incisal line angle.
Blend the enamel
porcelain into the
gingival one third
on the facial
surface. Re-create
the interproximal
contours and line
angles.
Shape the mesial-
incisal corner as
required for each
case. Examine the
builtup from an
incisal view and
evaluate the
overall shape.
Make certain the
restoration is
slightly over built.
Condense the built
up.
Use your thin razor
knife to cut and
shape the mesial
and distal
interproximal
areas. This
procedure also
removes any
unwanted
porcelain below the
interproximal
contact areas.
Carefully remove
the crown from the
master cast. Add
enamel porcelain
to the small
dimples in each
interproximal
contact area.
Remove excess
porcelain from the
porcelain-metal
junction and clean the
facial metal collar of
any porcelain with a
small brush or your
pointed porcelain
buildup brush.
Firing procedure.
The large bulk need more time to dry and
pre-heat.
Adhere to manufacturers recommended
drying time.
A properly fired porcelain body bake
should have a pebbly or orange peel
appearance.
Adjusting and finishing the metal
ceramic restoration.
Applying and firing the porcelain veneer to
a metal substructure only approximates
the shape, contour, occlusion, and surface
finish restoration.
The porcelain application process requires
slight overbuild of the ceramic, this results
in a bulky restoration.
Consequently, the fired porcelain requires
additional adjustments to reduce any
overcontouring and recreate a lifelike
ceramic surface finish before the
characterizing (staining) and glazing
stages.
Adjusting , contouring, and finishing
procedures for metal ceramic restorations
play a critical role in achieving both proper
function and optimal esthetics.
Armamentarium.
1. Equipment Handpiece with speeds of
50,000 rpm or below.

2. Instruments Iwanson metal caliper.

3. Materials Diamond abrasives,
Prepolish wheels, diamond disks.
The iwanson
metal calipers
can be used for
thickness
measurements
of metal or metal
and porcelain.
Diamond abrasive
instruments.
Porcelain
prepolish wheel
.Designed for
smoothening and
polishing
ceramic
surfaces.
Diamond disks
For adjusting
and contouring
interproximal
areas.
Procedures in adjusting and
finishing the metal ceramic
restoration.
1. To ensure the
casting
completely seats
on the die.
2.Adjusting the interproximal contacts.
a) Mark the
mesial
interproximal
contact using
thin double
sided marking
film.
b) Marking
identifies the
location and
intensity of
contact.
Adjustments in
the contact area
with pre-polish
wheel.
The thickness of
the restoration is
periodically
checked to
ensure that it is
not over
contoured.
The desired
characterization
is marked and
with an
abrasive the
appropriate
shape is
created with
desired effect.
Staining and glazing.
After a restoration has been adjusted and
finished, it is necessary to make color
corrections or additions and create a
lifelike surface luster.
Surface stains
should be
applied with a
small sable
brush.
Stain is placed
in area where
the
characterization
is intended.
Blend or dilute
the effect of the
stain
The glaze is
picked up with
a staining
brush and
applied to the
ceramic
surface where
desired.
Dry the
restoration in the
porcelain
furnace.
The restoration is
fired according to the
porcelain
manufacturers
direction.
Typically
glazed
restoration.
Mechanical polishing.
Mechanical polishing of the
restoration after glazing gives the
restoration a natural life like
appearance.
A diamond polishing
paste.
Pumice flour
After
mechanical
polishing. A
life like luster
is created in
the ceramic
yet the surface
characterizatio
n remains.

For more details please visit


Porcelains Used in Metal Ceramics / Orthodontic Courses by Indian Dental Academy

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Porcelains Used in Metal Ceramics / Orthodontic Courses by Indian Dental Academy

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

PORCELAINS USED IN METAL

It is deposited along the banks and at the

Only purest form of clay are used for

Вам также может понравиться