Math 116

Logic
Part 2
Definitions
An argument is a set of statements (called the
premises) that imply another statement
(called the conclusion)


Examples



horseshoes wears Seabiscuit Therefore,
horse a is biscuit Sea
. horseshoes wear horses All
exam the pass you Therefore, conclusion
exam the pass or you study t don You
study You

premises
Validity of an argument
An argument is valid if the premises are all
true and the conclusion is true.

An argument is invalid if all the premises are
true but the conclusion is false
Analyzing arguments
Two methods by used to analyze arguments
are by
(i) Euler diagrams ( set diagrams)
(ii) Truth tables
Using Euler diagrams
Euler diagrams are usually used to test the
validity of an argument when the words all
and some are used in the premises
Using Euler diagrams
Note the following: A and B are premises
A B None of A is in B
(disjoint)


A B
(Some of A is in B)
Intersection


Euler diagrams
A is a subset of B. All of A is in B
B
A
Example
Use Euler diagrams to test the validity of the
following:






broke is Adam Therefore,
student college a is Adam
broke. are students college All
Using truth tables
Step 1: Translate premises and conclusions
into symbolic form.
Step 2: Write the truth table for the premises
and the conclusion.
Step 3: Determine the validity of the
argument. It is valid if there is a row
where the premises are true and the
conclusion true; Invalid if there is a
row where the premises are true but
the conclusion false.
Example
Test the validity of the following argument
using truth tables:


paid. get not did I Therefore,
shoes of pair new a buy not did I
shoes. of pair new a buy will I then paid, get I If
Solution

Types of Valid arguments
1. Modus Ponens also called direct arguments
is in the form

Q
P
Q P

Examples of Modus Ponens

umbrella my carrying am I Therefore,
fly. can Pigs
umbrella. my carrying am I then fly, can pigs If
umbrella my carrying am I Therefore,
raining. is It
umbrella. my carrying am I then raining, is it If
Types of Valid arguments
2. Modus Tollens also called indirect
arguments is arguments in the form
P
Q
Q P
~
~

Examples of Modus Tollens

raining. not is it Therefore,
umbrella. my carrying not am I
umbrella. my carrying am I then raining, is it If
fly. cannot pigs Therefore,
umbrella. my carrying not am I
umbrella. my carrying am I then fly, can pigs If
Types of Valid arguments
3. Disjunctive Syllogism is an argument of the
form




Note : In the premise either at least one of
the statements is true or maybe both OR exactly
one must be true but both cannot be.
Q
P
Q P

~
Q P
Example


stud. a tongue got Babbs Therefore,
pierced. navel her get t didn Babbs
stud. a tongue get ll she or pierced, navel her get will bs Either Bab
Types of Valid arguments
4. Hypothetical Syllogism, also called
transitivity, is an argument of the form
R P
R Q
Q P

Example
prom. the her to ask ll he Therefore,
Babbs, likes Biff
prom. the her to ask ll he then Babbs, likes Biff If
Fallacies
A fallacy is an invalid argument form.
Two common fallacies
The fallacy of the converse.
The fallacy of the inverse.
The Fallacy of the Converse
The fallacy of the converse is the invalid
argument form



This is also called the fallacy of affirming the
consequent.
P
Q P

Q
Example

raining. is it Therefore,
umbrella. an carrying am I
umbrella. an carrying am I then raining, is it If

Fallacy of the Inverse
The fallacy of the inverse is the invalid
argument form



This is also called the fallacy of denying the
antecedent.
Q
P
Q
~
P

Example

umbrella. an carrying not am I Therefore,
fly. cannot Pigs
umbrella. an carrying am I then fly, can pigs If