You are welcome to a 5 day training

programme on
MECHANICAL DRIVE SYSTEMS
MAINTENANCE

Organised for
The Staff of
PROMASIDOR NIGERIA LIMITED
BY
APPLIED ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE
(...total engineering solutions)

Objectives
At the end of the course, participants will be able to:
Recognize and avoid common safety hazards
associated with Mechanical Drive Systems.
Identify reasons for rotating machinery to have a
specific ratio between driver and driven components
Identify and use common Mechanical Drive train
fasteners
Properly install Belts and chains
Identify common bearings by proper name and
application
2
Objectives
Explain purpose for lubrication and interpret lube
specifications to match specific applications.
Analyze symptoms of wear to troubleshoot system
failure
Describe a basic proactive approach to implement a
preventive maintenance programme.
Proper bearing mounting and dismounting
procedures
Carry out proper lubrication on Mechanical drive
components
Identify causes of bearing failure
3
COURSE CONTENT
Introduction to Mechanical Drive and Lubrication maintenance
Definition:
Safety associated with industrial activities:
Maintenance management
Types of maintenance
Introduction to rotating machinery
Driving machines (engines or prime movers)
Transmission machines
Driven machines
Operation principle of rotating machinery
Mechanism
Balancing
Transmission
Alignment
Guards
4
COURSE CONTENT
Bushings, Keys, and Keyways
Splines
Tapered, QD and split bushings
Square, flat, tapered, Woodruff keys
Sizing and fit
Symptoms of failure
Shafts
Factors for designing a shaft
Classification of shaft
Actions of the load on the shaft
Characteristics of shafts
Materials for shafts
Installation of Shafting
Shaft Alignment


5
COURSE CONTENT
Friction
Causes of friction
Advantages of friction
Disadvantages of friction
Nature of friction
Types of friction
Lubrication
Belt drives
Types of Belt
Belt installation
Toothed belt and pulleys
Pulley ratio
Advantages and Disadvantages of belts
Troubleshooting and Maintenance belt drives

6
COURSE CONTENT
Gears drives
Gears drives definition
Alignments
Lubrication
Types of gears
Major types of gear tooth wear & failures
Chain drives
Chain drives definition
Drive sprockets
Driven sprocket
Chain pitch
Centre distance
Chain length
Chain rating
Ultimate strength

7
COURSE CONTENT
Chain drives CONTD
Pitch diameter
Installation of chain drives
Advantages of chain drives
Disadvantages
Maintenance of chain drive
Chain lubrication
Troubleshooting chain drives
Couplings
Functions of couplings
Types of couplings
Shaft alignment on couplings
Installation of couplings
Failure patterns on couplings

8
COURSE CONTENT
Seals
Types of seal
Gaskets
Sealing principles
Gasket materials
Methods of marking out gasket shapes
Fitting a flat seal
0-rings
Sealants
Introduction to lubrication
Types of lubricants
Types of grease
Bearing not requiring lubrication
Characteristics of lubricants
Characteristics of grease

9
COURSE CONTENT
Clutches and brakes
Mechanical, friction, centrifugal, and plate clutches
Clutch selection
Torque converters
Mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, and electric brakes
Vibration
Overheating
10
MECHANICAL DRIVES SYSTEMS
MAINTENANCE
A. Definition: Mechanical drives systems maintenance
is the study of nature, operations, maintenance and
lubrication of mechanical drives components such as
shafts, couplings, v-belts & pulleys, chains &
sprocket, gears and bearings used in the
manufacturing of goods in the industry.
B Safety associated with industrial activities: They are
wide and comprehensive i.e. all inclusive legal
requirements in form of written laws and what
should be in place or observed in an industrial
organization for the security of life and, properties.
11
MECHANICAL DRIVES SYSTEMS
MAINTENANCE
It's the government that is responsible for the
enforcement through the factory inspectors and the
observance rest on the management of any
industrial concern. The laws border on: set up of the
industry, safety, health, welfare, accident prevention,
etc. It is the responsibility of the workers to get
acquainted with these laws, which are in form of
Factory Act usually pasted at a conspicuous point in
industries, and keep all safety rules therein.

12
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WORKING
ON A PLANT
1. General
a. It is absolutely necessary that a workman be in sound mind
and in complete control of his faculties before working in the
plants.
b. Attempt should not be made in the operation and
maintenance of any machinery one is not familiar with until
properly instructed.
c. Machines are equipped with safety guards and protection and
they must not be removed unless under repairs, equipment
should not be operated without the guard in place.
d. Defective, loose or inappropriate tools should not be used e.g.
badly fitting spanners, loose file haft, cable, sling, hooks and
blocks.
13
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WORKING
ON A PLANT
e. Improper handling of materials and heavy object cause
injuries and accident in industries. Mechanical means of
handling materials should be used whenever possible instead
of manual method.
f. Thorough cleanliness and orderliness of work areas is
imperative to avoid slipping, bad fall or injury to legs.
2. Personal protective equipment
a. Clothing:
I. Synthetic materials should not be used, as some are highly
inflammable. It should be of flame resistant material.
II. Trouser legs which drag on the floor or which have cuffs that
are too wide should be avoided. Loose and flapping clothing
may at any time become entangled in a belt or moving part.
14
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WORKING
ON A PLANT
b. Hard toed protective shoes with anti-static sole should be
worn. Also safety hats for the protection of the head against
falling objects.
c. Rings and other items of jewelry should not be worn when
working, they may catch a moving parts and CAUSE injury to
hands and fingers.
d. Safety goggles should be worn especially when striking an
object with another, wire brushing, chipping, grinding and
working on rusty or dirty chains.
e. Earmuffs, masks and respirators should be worn to protect
against noise, vibration, and inhalation of dangerous gases or
fire particles.
15
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WORKING
ON A PLANT
3. Cleaning rags and solvents
a. Rags should not protrude from pockets since they
can be hazardous when working near rotating
machinery.
b. Under no circumstances should wiping around
revolving shafts and other moving parts be done.
c. Cleaning of machines with petrol or other flammable
liquid should never be contemplated. Diesel fuel is
ideal for cleaning machinery.

16
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
This is the organization of maintenance within
unambiguous agreed policy of the top management
team being its express responsibility. This policy will be
communicated to the maintenance engineer defining
acceptable condition of maintenance, which will serve
as his terms of reference.

Objectives Of Maintenance Management
1. To extend the useful life of assets where it stands to
reason to maintain rather than to replace due to lack of
capital resources for replacement.
17
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
2. To ensure maximum utility of installed equipment for
production or service, and for maximum possible return in
investment.
3. To ensure operational readiness of all equipment for
emergency use at all times e.g. stand by units, fire fighting
units, rescue units (e.g. ambulances).
4. To ensure the safety of personnel using the production
facilities.

Various forms of maintenance
Maintenance is combination of actions carried out to retain
equipment or restore it to an acceptable condition i.e.
whatever level is set by an organization.

18
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
UNPLANNED MAINTENANCE
1. Emergency maintenance: this is a maintenance that is necessary
immediately to avoid expensive damage to assets.
2. Break down maintenance: maintenance carried out which result in
non- availability of the equipment for production or services for
sometime.
3. Running maintenance: this is maintenance that can be carried out
when the equipment is in service.
4. Shut down maintenance: this is maintenance that can only be
carried out when equipments are out of service.
PLANNED MAINTENANCE
This is a maintenance programme organized and carried out with
forethought, control and records to a predetermined plant. It has two
arms: -
19
MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
1. Preventive maintenance: is the system of plant maintenance that
deals with inspection and replacement intended to eliminate the
occurrence of defects.
a. Running inspection to locate loose parts e.g. vibration,
misalignment, wear, leakages of lubricant and lack of cleanliness.
b. Shutdown inspection of working parts that need dismantling.
2. Corrective maintenance: is a maintenance program carried out at
predetermined intervals intended to reduce the likelihood of
equipment not meeting an acceptable condition.
3. To ensure operational readiness of all equipment for emergency use
at all times e.g. stand by units, fire fighting units, rescue units (e.g.
ambulances).
4. To ensure the safety of personnel using the production facilities.

20
INTRODUCTION TO ROTATING
MACHINERY
DEFINITIONS
A rotating machine is one in which the main working
components rotate about a fixed centre in a regular manner.
Most such machines incorporate additional subsidiary
mechanisms such as linkages, slides, gears and reciprocating
components, and many of the operating principles that apply
to the rotating assembly also apply to these other elements.
Although there are many different types of rotating machines,
they can all be classified into three basic groups in terms of
their function.
21
INTRODUCTION TO ROTATING
MACHINERY
Driving machines (Engines or prime movers)
This group includes all machines whose purpose is to drive other
machines. Examples include: Electric motor Steam turbines
Diesel engines Petrol engines Air motors The common
characteristic of these machines is that they convert an energy
input of varying kinds into a mechanical output in the form of a
rotating drive shaft.
Transmission machines
These are machines whose purpose is to transmit mechanical
energy from a living to a driven machine. Examples include:
Gearboxes, Differentials, Variable speed drives.
The mechanical energy transmitted often undergoes a speed
transformation and these machines often incorporate some
means of drive disengagement such as a clutch. 22
INTRODUCTION TO ROTATING
MACHINERY
Driven machines
These machines cannot operate independently and need to
be coupled to a driving machine. Examples include:
Pumps
Compressors
Fans
Generators
Blenders
Machine tools

23
INTRODUCTION TO ROTATING
MACHINERY
This group is by far the largest and includes a large number of
different types of machines. The common characteristic is
that the energy input is normally in the form of a rotating
drive shaft while output may be in a variety of forms including
kinetic or pressure energy of a fluid, electrical energy, kinetic
or potential energy of a solid materials, etc. Because of the
ways in which different types of machines are sometimes
combined into sets, the distinction between the separate
elements is not always clear. For example, some pumping
units are directly coupled through a reduction gear to an
electric motor with all three elements contained in a single
housing. Although such an item may be treated as a single
machine it does, in fact, contain all three elements of driving,
transmission and driven.
24
INTRODUCTION TO ROTATING
MACHINERY
From a maintenance viewpoint, it is important that the function
of a machine, or the elements of a machine set, is clearly
understood. Troubleshooting and fault correction depend on an
ability to detect deviations from normal operation, and the
assessment of operating conditions demands a knowledge of the
function of a machine as well as the principles on which it
operates. It is recommended that technicians make sure that they
are fully familiar with the function (i.e. what the machine 'does')
of the particular machinery with which they are concerned.
25
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
A prerequisite of good maintenance practice is a critical understanding of
the principles on which the satisfactory operation of rotating machinery is
based. This understanding provides the foundation of the maintenance
technician's ability to diagnose and correct faults. Although each machine
is different in some way, and each engineering situation gives rise to
special requirements, there are a number of conditions that are critical to
the operation of all rotating machines. They were: -
Performance
Downtime
Service life
Efficiency
Safety
Environmental impact
Maintenance cost
If a machine is to perform 'satisfactorily' according to these criteria, then
the following conditions must be satisfied.

26
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
MOUNTING
A rotating machine must be correctly mounted on a suitable foundation. If this
condition is not met then operation of the machine may cause damage both to
itself and to adjacent equipment.
MECHANISM
Every rotating machine must have an internal mechanism that is operable, in good
repair and capable of achieving the performance required. There are many
excellent books that describe the operation and maintenance of specific types of
machines and the technician should consult these for information when necessary
BALANCING
The rotating components or assemblies of a rotating machine must be correctly
balanced. Assemblies that are not balanced cause excessive vibration and high
stresses. Not only does this condition cause rapid wear and frequent breakdown
but sudden and dramatic failure may occur with dangerous consequences.
LUBRICATION
A rotating machine, like any mechanism where relative motion of contacting parts
is involved, cannot operate satisfactorily unless it is lubricated to reduce friction
and wear.


27
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
BEARINGS
Every item of rotating machinery requires a set of properly maintained bearings
that support the mechanism and restrain its motion with minimum resistance.
Bearings are an essential component and a common element in all rotating
machine.
TRANSMISSION
Because machines normally operate in 'sets' i.e. driving-driven or driving-
transmission driven, some means of connecting the input and output shafts of the
separate elements is required.
ALIGNMENT
When machines are assembled in sets as described above, it is vital that the
interconnecting shafts are properly aligned to each other. Poor alignment will cause
vibration and lead to rapid wear of couplings, bearings, seals and other rotating
elements.
SEALS
Rotating machines usually contain a number of fluids such as process fluids, fuels,
cooling water and lubricants. At the very least there will always be a lubricant
present.
28
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
The escape of any of these fluids must be prevented to avoid waste and
the creation of hazards to personnel and the environment. Hence all
machine joints and connections must be properly sealed. As well as
containing fluids within the machine, sealing also serves to prevent
contamination from external sources such as dirt and moisture.
GUARDS
In order to prevent injury to personnel, the minimum safety requirement
on any rotating machine is that all exposed rotating elements should be
guarded during operation. Guarding should be designed and installed in
such a way that accidental interference with rotating elements is
impossible. The construction of machine guards is usually straightforward
and the maintenance technician should ensure that they are always
secure and in good repair. No matter what specific type of rotating
machine is considered, these nine conditions represent the minimum
requirements for satisfactory operation and if proper attention is given to
these conditions then there is every chance that satisfactory operation will
be achieved.

29
KEYS AND KEYWAYS
The term fastener generally refers to a
number of devices used for holding
components together.
The key and keyway is one of such devices.
Other fasteners includes;
Bolts and nuts
Screws
Collars etc.
30
Fundamental Problem in
Shaft Design
31
Interference Fits
Hole is undersized and
part is heated to allow it
to slide over shaft.
Compressive interface
pressure develops
when part cools.

32
Keys and Keyseats
33
Keys are used to transmit torque from a component to the shaft.
Types of Keyseats
34
Keyseats are classified according to the process by which they are made.
Keyway Fabrication Methods
35
Fillet Radii and Key ChamfFillet Radii and
Key Chamfers
36
Fillet Radii Fabrication
37
Square and Rectangular
Parallel Keys
38
The hub is slightly larger than the shaft and key to allow it to slide over the shaft during
assembly. The set screw is used to take up the slack. The resulting friction is used to
provide resistance to axial motion. Thread adhesive may be required to ensure that
vibration doesn't cause the set screw to loosen.
Square and Rectangular
Key Geometry
Width is approximately
the diameter of the
shaft. Standard contains
tables of recommended
key sizes versus shaft
diameter

39
Keys and Keyseats, ANSI
Standard B17.1-1967.
Set screws
Holding Power .
Resistance to axial or rotary
motion of the hub or collar
relative to the shaft.
Holding power is a function of
friction between contacting
portions of hub or collar and
shaft and any penetration of
the setscrew into the keyway
or shaft.

40
Representative Holding
Power Values
Based on alloy steel
screw against steel
shaft, class 3A coarse or
fine threads in class 2B
holes, and cuppoint
socket setscrews.
41
Keys and Keyways
Keys can be classified as:
I. Rectangular Keys and Keyways
II. Gibb Head Key
III. Feather Key
IV. Woodruff Key and Keyway.
42
Keys And Keyways contd.
The rectangular key and keyway are the simplest key
fasteners for securing a shaft to a hub. They are easy
to remove and re-install.
The Gibb key is used where a tight fit is desired. It is
installed and removed with a hammer.
The feather key and keyway have a screw
arrangement for securing the key to the shaft. This
ensures that at all times the key is fixed to the shaft.
The woodruff key and keyway take the shape of
sector of a circle. The keyway is often cut with a side
and face cutter on a milling machine.
43
Keyway Broach Set cuts keyways
44
Shafts
45
SHAFTS
SHAFT is a member usually of circular section which supports
gears, sprockets, pulleys, rotors, etc and which is subjected to
torsion or axial loads, acting singly or in combination. It is also the
principal part for transmitting power or rotary motion and torque,
and is subjected to complex deformations in operation (torsion,
bending, tension and compression).
FACTORS FOR DESIGNING A SHAFT
1. Basis of Strength: It is necessary to consider the following types
of loading
a. Static loading
b. Shock loading: The weakening effects at points of stress.
c. Cyclic loading: Concentration due to keyways and shoulders.
2. Basis of Rigidity
(a). The twisting of the shaft should be limited in order to provide
accurate prescribed timing or motions.
46
SHAFTS
(b) Transverse deflections should be limited to maintain proper
bearing clearances or gear tooth alignment.
Classification of shaft
1. Plain shaft-With constant diameter, are of the simplest
shape, but find only limited applications.
2. Stepped shaft-Are most extensively used in the engineering
industries
Actions of the load on the shaft
1. Torsion
2. Bending
3. Torsion combined with bending.
4. Torsion combined with axial tension or compression
47
SHAFTS
Characteristics of shafts
1. Shafts are not of uniform diameter to provide shoulders for
locating gears, pulleys, bearings, and other attached or contacting
parts.
2. Stepped shaft are for motors and locating the rotor, ball bearings,
fans, etc,
3.Shaft must be sufficiently rigid to ensure normal operation of the
parts in transmitting motion
MATERIALS FOR SHAFTS
1. Mild steel-Most common materials for shafting.
2. Alloy steel-Used for high strength requirements (nickel, chromium
and vanadium).
3. Low carbon steel- (SAE 1015) hot rolled and finished to size by cold
rolling, by turning or grinding for commercial shafting. Shafts for
special purpose may be forged
48
SHAFTS DESIGN
49
Installation of Shafting
Safety
It is essential that the mechanism be completely isolated from its
power supply while working on couplings or shafts.


Fitting a Plummer (or Pillow) Block to Shaft.
(a) Thoroughly clean the shaft and remove any burrs from the ends
and keyways.
(b) Coat the inside of the bearing with oil to prevent scoring or
scratching during assembly.
(c) Slide the correct size plumber block on to the shaft to
approximately the correct position.
50
Fitting a Plummer (or Pillow) Block to
Shaft.
51
Methods of locking Plummer blocks to
a shaft
Many Plummer blocks incorporate ball or roller bearings. With
blocks of this type the shaft is located then locked to the inner
race.
1. Some types of block use set screws to lock the shaft in
position. When fitting this type of block partially unscrew the
set screws to allow the shaft to pass through the inner race
2. Other types of block have the bearing mounted on a taper
lock adaptor When positioning this type of block on a shaft
remove the top half of the housing.
Slacken off the adaptor sleeve locknut to allow free
movement of the shaft through the bearing. The shaft is
locked to the inner race by tightening up the locknut.

52
Methods of locking Plummer blocks to a shaft
53
Methods of locking Plummer blocks to a shaft
c. Do not over-tighten the
locknut as the free
movement of the
bearing will be affected.
When the locknut has
been locked in its final
position by means of
the tab washer check
that the race moves
freely
d) Align the holes in the
Plummer blocks with
their mounting holes
54
Methods of locking Plummer blocks to a shaft
e) Fit the bolts into the
Plummer block mountings
and tighten them by hand.
(f) Check that the clearances at
each end of the shaft are
correct.
(g) Lubricate the bearing
according to the
manufacturer's instructions.
Note Some bearings, packed
with grease by the
manufacturer's, do not
need any further
lubrication.


55
Methods of locking Plummer blocks to a shaft
(h) Tighten the lock
screws in the
Plummer blocks
equally to clamp the
shaft.
(I) Align the shaft. See
next section.
(j) Tighten mounting
bolts

56
Shaft Alignment
Shafts must be accurately aligned when fitted, as any
misalignment will damage or shorten the life of both
the bearings and the couplings. Machines bed down
when they are used, so the shaft alignment must be
checked regularly and corrected if necessary.
Checking Alignment
There are several methods of checking alignment. It
may be done using a straight edge, a dial test
indicator or a vernier height gauge. Before beginning
an alignment check:
(a) The mounting surfaces must be clean and flat.
(b) The mounting bolts must be tight. Alignment must
be checked in both horizontal and vertical plane.

57
Shaft Alignment
58
Shaft Alignment
1. Using a straight edge.
The use of a straight edge will provide a sufficiently accurate alignment check
when a flexible coupling is to be used.
Vertical alignment
(a) Place the straight edge along the top of the two shafts.
(b) Correct any misalignment by adding or removing shims under the appropriate
Plummer blocks. Ensure that burrs are removed from shims before placing them
in position, and that the mounting bolts are tightened down before each check.
An inspection lamp should be placed behind the straight edge to reveal whether
shafts are aligned vertically.

59
Shaft Alignment
Horizontal alignment
(a) Place the straight edge along the side
of the shafts.
(b) Correct any misalignment by loosening
off the Plummer block mounting bolts
and moving the blocks sideways as
required. Tighten the mounting bolts
and re-check alignment.
(c) Repeat procedure until correct
alignment is obtained.
2. Using a Dial Test Indicator. When rigid
bearings and couplings are used,
greater accuracy is required. Use an
indicator with a vee slot in the base.
Hold the vee against one of the shafts.
Adjust the indicators to read on the
end of the other shaft.

60
Shaft Alignment
Rotate the shaft carrying the base and
note the readings of the indicator for one
revolution.
Adjust the position of the indicator to
read further along the other shaft. Take
readings for another revolution. Adjust
the alignment as necessary. When the
shafts are correctly aligned, the indicator
reading will be constant for the revolution
Using a vernier height gauge
Vertical alignment can be checked with a
vernier height gauge if the housings are
mounted on a machined surface.
61
Shaft Alignment
Rotate the shaft carrying the base and
note the readings of the indicator for one
revolution.
Adjust the position of the indicator to
read further along the other shaft. Take
readings for another revolution. Adjust
the alignment as necessary. When the
shafts are correctly aligned, the indicator
reading will be constant for the revolution
Using a vernier height gauge
Vertical alignment con be checked with a
vernier height Gauge if the housings are
mounted on a machined surface.
62
Shaft Alignment
Doweling
After correct alignment,
drill and ream two holes in
the Plummer block and its
mounting surface. Fit
dowel pin, to permanently
locate the Plummer block.
63
FRICTION
Friction is the resistance to movement when one surface is moved over another
thereby creating opposition to motion.
The amount of frictional resistance between the two surfaces in contact depends
upon: -
(a) The roughness of the surfaces in contact. The smoother the surfaces, the lower
the frictional resistance.
(b) The metals in contact: When steel slides on steel, the frictional resistance will
be greater than when bronze slides on steel
(c) The force which presses the two surfaces together. The larger the force the
greater the frictional resistance.
Advantages Of Friction
There are many instances whereby friction is advantageous. Some of these are:
1. Friction is used as a driving force. Friction transmits the drive between a belt and
pulley and provides the drive with friction clutches.
2. Friction prevents slipping. Parts gripped in chucks and vices are prevented from
64
FRICTION
moving by friction. Clamping devices also rely on friction,
3. Tools are held in position in their tool posts by friction. Milling cutters are
held in position on the arbor of the milling machine by friction,
4. Friction is used on brakes.
Disadvantages Of Friction
When one surface has to slide over another, friction is a disadvantage. It is
therefore disadvantageous to have friction on;
1. Any part of machine tools that have to slide e.g. the shaping machine and
its slides.
2. Shafts and bearings,
3. The teeth of meshed gears .Obviously, dirt and grit between two moving
machine parts will increase the amount of friction, but it may also scar the
surface of the parts and interfere with the operation. Rusting can increase
the friction on parts that move together, but lubrication is also used to
prevent rust on parts that do not move.

65
FRICTION
NATURE OF FRICTION
Ball bearings and roller bearings are typical examples of rolling friction. In
machine design, ball and roller you will understand the "whys" of
lubrication better if you are familiar with what causes the different types
of friction and how their effects can be used or overcome. The simplest
way to define friction would be to stay that it is the resistance to
movement that is caused when two surfaces move against each other.
Even the smoothest highly polished metal surfaces still have some rough
edges on the surfaces, and these rough spots will restrict the motion of
the two pieces of metal when they are rubbed together. Even though they
are so small that a magnifying glass may be needed to see them, they can
still have some effect.

66
FRICTION
TYPES OF FRICTION
There are three basic types of friction
1. SLIDING FRICTION
2. ROLLING FRICTION
3. FLUID FRICTION


67
TYPES OF FRICTION
1. SLIDING FRICTION
The strongest friction is the SLIDING FRICTION, which is produced when two flat
or similar surfaces rub against each other. Two bars rubbing together, a piston,
could produce this Moving against the cylinder walls, or a shaft turning in a
bushing. In each of these instances, a maximum amount of surface of each part is
in contact with the other one.


68
TYPES OF FRICTION
2. ROLLING FRICTION
It occurs when one part rolls over the surface of the other. This type of friction
consumes less energy than sliding friction, because there are fewer surfaces
making contact at any time. Bearings are used between two surfaces to reduce the
effects of sliding friction to those of rolling friction.


69
TYPES OF FRICTION
3. FLUID FRICTION
It occurs when the two surfaces are separated by thin layers of fluid (or
lubricant). This lubricant changes sliding or rolling friction into the much more
efficient fluid friction.


70
BELT DRIVE
71
BELT DRIVES
In belt drives, power is transmitted by friction
The amount of power transmitted is dependent on the coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley
The coefficient of friction depends on the materials in contact, their condition
(smooth, dry, oily), the arc of contact between the belt and pulley or sheave
and the velocity at which belt operates
It transfers power from a driver to something that is driven
Are commonly used to transmit motion between two sheaves in one direction
only
Advantages Of V-Belts
Compactness Of Design: Short centre distances are possible. The centre
distance between two pulleys may be small as the diameter of the larger
sheave.
Smoothness: This is possible because the v-belt is endless
Bearing Life: Lower belt tensions and hence lower bearing loads are possible.
Also, since this type of belt readily absorbs shock, bearing life is lengthened

72
BELT DRIVES
Dependability: When more than one belt is used in a drive, failure of one
will not cause the entire machine to stop.
Maintenance: Except for an occasional tightening of the drive, necessitated
by
stretching and seating in the sheave, little maintenance is required
Why V-Belts are Used
There has been a great increase in the use of v-belts to power industrial
drives since their invention early in this century. The advantages they
provide include:
Because they can slip, v-belts cushion equipment from overload and
fluctuations in load
Alignment, although important is not as critical as with other kinds of
drives
They are relatively easy to select, install and maintain
They operate quietly (with proper alignment and tension)
They do not require lubrication

73
BELT DRIVES
Disadvantages
Disadvantages of using a v-belt drive which may influence selection of
another power transmission device, such as a synchronous drive or direct
coupling include V-belts are reliable, relatively inexpensive and easy to
install and operate
They are subject to certain, though minimal, amount of slip making them
unsuitable for applications that require invariable, constant speed
They are not as efficient as other drives, although modern technology has
reduced their inefficiency greatly
Angular-velocity ratio is not constant or equal to that of the pulley
diameters, due to slip and stretch.
Heat accumulation is present, and speed is limited to 2300rpm and power
only 500hp.
Adjustment of centre distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to
compensate for wear and stretch.
74
Row of Flat belts
75
BELTS
Flat Belts
Flat belts are used early in line shafting to transmit
power in factories.
It is a simple system of power transmission that
deliver high power for high speeds.
A good use for flat belts is with small pulleys and
large central distances.
They come in both endless and jointed construction.
They are used as conveyor belts in the food industry.

76
Flat drive
77
Flat drive
78
Rubber belt
79
BELTS
Round Belts
Round belts are a circular cross section belts
designed to run in a pulley with a circular (or near
circular) groove.
They are for use in low torque situations and may be
purchased in various lengths or cut to length and
joined, either by a staple, gluing or welding (in case
of polyurethane).
They find application in sewing machines and some
other machines.
80
Belt shape
81
Belts
Film Belts
They consist of a very thin belt (0.5-15mm)
strip of plastic and occasionally rubber.
They are generally intended for low power
(7kw or 10hp), high speed uses, allowing
efficiency (up to 98%) and long life.
They are used in business machines, tape
recorders, and other light-duty applications.
82
Belts
Timing Belts
Timing belts, (also known as Toothed, Notch or Cog)
belts are a positive transfer belts and can track
relative movement.
These belts have teeth that fit into a matching
toothed pulley.
When correctly tensioned, they have no slippage, run
at constant speed, and are often used to transfer
direct motion for indexing or timing purposes.
83
Belts
Timing Belts
They are often used in lieu of chains or gears,
so there is less noise and a lubrication bath is
not necessary.
They run with toothed pulleys.
Camshafts of automobiles, miniature timing
systems, and stepper motors often utilize
these belts.
84
Belts
Vee Belts
The V-belt was developed in 1917 by John Gates of
the Gates Rubber Company.
They are generally endless, and their cross-section
shape is trapezoidal.
The V shape of the belt tracks in a mating groove
in the pulley (or sheave) with the result that the belt
cannot slip off.
The belt also tends to wedge into the groove as the
load increases
85
Belts
V-Belts
The greater the load, the greater the wedging action improving
torque transmission and making the V-belt an effective solution,
needing less width and tension than flat belts.
The preferred centre distance is larger than the largest pulley
diameter, but less than three times the sum of both pulleys.
Optimal speed range is 330 to 2300 rpm.
For high-power requirements two or more V belts can be joined
side by side in an arrangement called a multi-V, running on
matching multi-groove sheaves.
86
V belt
87
Double angle v belt
88
Notch belt
89
BELT DRIVES
PROCEDURE FOR INSTALLATION OF V- BELT
1. Check the condition of the pulley and check for wobble.
2. Check that the belt is match set.
3. Align the pulleys according to the procedures outlined above.
4. Reduce the centre distance of the shafts by adjusting the position of the motor.
If an idler pulley is used, release the tension on the idler so that the belt can be
fitted
5. Fit the belt or belts taking care not to damage them in the process.
6. Adjust the belt tension as recommended.
7. Run the unit for a short period says 10 minutes, to allow the belt to seat
correctly in the pulley grooves.
8. Readjust the tension.
9. Recheck the tension after 24 hours of operation.
10. Ensure that the drive is protected with a suitable guard at all times during
operation. The guard should be provided with ventilation and secure against
removal by unauthorized personnel.
90
INSTALLING A SET OF V- BELTS
(a) Check that the belts are a matched set.
(b) Install the belts starting from the inside pulley and
working outwards.
Note
Mountings must be slackened to avoid straining belts.
Tensioning Belts
Belts must be tensioned correctly to transfer the drive,
and prevent unnecessary wear. As they stretch in use,
their tension must be regularly checked and adjusted.
Measuring deflection in a slack belt
(a) Check the specified deflection In the
manufacturer's instructions.
(b) Find the middle of the longest span of belt
between pulleys.
(c) Push this mid-point inwards, then pull it
91
Tension tester
92
INSTALLING A SET OF V- BELTS
out and note the total deflection, which should
indicate the tension.
d. Adjust the tension as necessary.
Measuring tension in a taut belt
(a) Check the manufacturers' Instructions for
the deflection used and the force needed to reach it.
(b) Find the middle of the longest span of belt
between the pulleys.
(c) Attach a spring balance to this point.
(d) Pull the belt out to the required deflection and
note the reading.
(e) Adjust tension if necessary.

93
Adjusting belt tension
1. Loosen the locknuts.
2. Slacken off the clamping bolts.
3. Move the pulley with the adjusting screw
to alter the tension. The adjusting screws
may be turned equally to keep the pulleys
correctly aligned.
4. Check the tension
5. Readjust until correct
6. Tighten the clamping bolts.
7. Tighten the locknuts
94
INCORRECT METHOD OF INSTALLING
V-BELT ON PULLEY
95
TOOTHED BELT AND PULLEYS
In machines where a positive drive is essential and no slip
between belt and pulleys can be accepted a toothed belt and
pulleys is used as shown.
Toothed belts are mainly used for timing mechanisms, where
a quiet, positive (no slip) drive is required such as driving a
camshafts in a motor car engine

96
BELT DRIVING
Since belt driving is still used for various purposes, it is worthy of
some attention. The drive from one pulley to another is caused by
the frictional resistance between the belt and the pulleys. In
practice a little belt slip takes place and there is a small amount of
belt creep. If two pulleys of diameter d and D are connected, and if
d makes N rev/min, then if we neglect slip and creep:

d millimetres of belt pass over the small pulley per turn or dN
millimetres per minute.

This length will also pass over the large pulley i.e. pulley speeds are
proportional to their diameters, with small pulleys rotating faster
than larger ones in the same drive.


97
BELT DRIVING
98
BELT DRIVING
Example 1. The drive to a machine is as follows: A 400 mm pulley on the
mainshaft drives a 300 mm countershaft pulley. From the countershaft a
300 mm pulley drives a 230 pulley on the machine. If the mainshaft speed
is 250 rev/min, estimate the speed of the machine (a) without belt slip, (b)
with 5% slip.

99
BELT DRIVING
The drive is shown diagrammatically where A, B, C and D are the pulleys, A
and C being the drivers.
Then with no slip:
Speed of B (and C) = 250 X (400/300) = 333 rev/min.
Speed of D = 333 X (300 /230)= 436 rev/min

If there is 5% slip:
Speed of B and C = 333 X (95/100)=316 rev/min.
Speed of D =316x (300 /230 )X (95/100)=390 rev/min
100
PULLEY RATIO
101
PULLEY RATIO
102
TROUBLESHOOTING V-BELT DRIVES
In case of a belt drive malfunction, look for trouble signs and correct problems
before replacing belts and resuming operations.
Trouble Possible Causes
Belts turn over in sheaves 1. Misaligned sheaves and shafts
2. Worn sheave grooves
3. Misalignment of idler sheave
4. Excessive belt vibration due to improper tension
5. Belt cord damage from improper installation
Bell Squeaks or screeches 1. Too high standing load, causing belt to slip
because of improper tension.
2. Overload, causing belt slippage because of
improper tension.
Belt chirps 1. Movement of belt on a flat idler or sheave
(not harmful).
Belt breaks prematurely 1. Foreign materials in sheaves
2. Shock or extreme overload
3. Belt damage during installation
103
TROUBLESHOOTING V-BELT DRIVES
Trouble Possible Causes
Belt stretched beyond take-up 1. Drive operated with too much tension
2. Wrong belt or poor storage in damp area.
Belt has short life 1. Worn sheaves
2. Oil or grease on belt
3. High temperatures
4. Belt cover wear caused by guard or bell guard
interference
5. Excessive belt slippage (inadequate tension)
6. Poor Storage.
104
Belts
Determination Of Belt Length
To determine the needed length of belt, we use
the following formula;

Belt length=2C+1.57(D+d)+[D-d] /4C
Where C = centre distance b/w pulleys
D = diameter of large pulley
d = diameter of small pulley.

105
BELT MATERIALS
Industrial belt drives come in a variety of
shapes and materials, and are designed to
perform specific tasks. They are;
Rubber
Urethane
Leather
Canvas
106
Belt Materials
Advantages Of Rubber Belts
o Made of natural or synthetic fibre core
surrounded by compound.
o Resist abrasion, punctures and chemicals.
o Dimensionally stable.
107
Belt Materials
Advantages Of Urethane Flat Belts
Very flexible to conform to sharp bends.
Have high coefficient of friction, hence they
are used in machines that have to grip
products, such as turning cartons or cans, or
sorting packages.
They can be spliced on the job, hence repairs
can be made.
108
GEAR DRIVES
109
Gear Drives
A gear is a component within a transmission device
that transmits rotational force to another gear or
device.
Gear devices can transmit forces at different speeds,
torques or in different direction, from the power
source.
The most common situation is for gear to mesh with
another gear, but a gear can mesh with any other
device having compatible teeth, such as linear
moving racks.
110
Gears
A gears most important feature is that gears of
unequal sizes (diameter) can be combined to
produce a Mechanical advantage.
The rotational speed and torque of the second gear
are different from that of the first.
The interlocking of the teeth in a pair of meshing
gears means that their circumferences necessarily
move at the same rate of linear motion (e.g. m/s).
111
Planetary Gear train
112
Gear train
113
Spur Gear train
114
Gear box
115
Worn and wheel gear
116
Planetary Gear train
117
Helical Bevel gear
118
Spur bevel gear
119
Rack and pinion gear
120
Rack and pinion gear
121
Gears
Since rotational speed is proportional to a wheels
circumferential speed divided by its radius, it means
that the larger the radius of a gear, the slower will be
the rotational speed, when meshed with a gear of
given size and speed. It goes like this;

(speed A x number of teeth A) =(speed B x number
of teeth B)

This is known as the gear ratio.
122
Gears
1. Gear Types
2. Spur Gear
3. Helical Gear
4. Herring-bone Gears
5. Bevel Gears
6. Spiral Gears
7. Worm Gears
8. Rack and pinion.
9. Planetary or internal Gears.
10. Hypoid Gears.

123
Gears
Spur Gears
The shafts run parallel with the teeth. The teeth are
straight.
Helical Gear
Offer more refinement over spur gears. The leading
edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of
rotation, but are set at an angle.
Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth
shape to be a segment of a helix.
124
Gears
Helical Gears run more silently ,since both
teeth engagement take place more gradually.
It develops an axial pressure which can be
absorbed by a thrust bearing.
Spur gears are used for applications involving
high speed, large power transmission, or
where noise abatement is important.
125
Gears
Double Helical or Herringbone Gears
The double helix compensate for the axial
thrust.
They are applied for heavier load
transmission.
126
Gears
Bevel Gears
They are essentially conically shaped, although the
actual gear does not extend all the way to the vertex
of the cone that bounds it.
The angle between the shafts can be anything except
zero or 180 degrees.
Bevel gears with equal number of teeth and shaft
axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.
127
Gears
Spiral Gears
They are spiral toothed gears.
The shafts cross each other.
Worm Gear
A worm gear resembles a screw.
A worm is usually meshed with a disc-shaped gear
called the gear, the wheel or the worm wheel.
Worm and wheel normally have gear ratios of
between 10:1 and 100:1.
They are capable of heavy loads.
128
Gears
Rack and Pinion
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be
thought of as a sector gear with infinitely large
radius of curvature.
Torque can be converted to linear force by
meshing a rack with a pinion.
It is used in automobile steering wheels.
129
Gears
Planetary or Internal Gears
Have better load carrying capacity than external
gears.
They are safer in use because the teeth are guarded.
Hypoid Gears
A variation of the spiral bevel gear is the hypoid gear
designed to transmit motion between two on-
intersecting and non-parallel shafts.
130
Gears
Backlash
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs
when gears change direction.
It exists because there is always some gap
between the tailing face of the driving tooth
and the leading face of the tooth behind it on
the driven gear.
The gap must be closed before force can be
transferred in the new direction.
131
Gears
The term backlash can also be used to refer
to the size of the gap, e.g. 0.1mm backlash.
Gear Materials
Generally made of nonferrous alloys, cast
irons, powder metallurgy and even plastics.
132
Gears
Gear Tooth Wears and
Failures
Normal wear
Abrasive wear
Scratching
Overload wear
Rolling and peening
Rippling
Scoring

Gear Tooth Wears and
Failures
Pilling
Spalling
Corrosion
Burning
Interference wear
Ridging
Breakage
Cracking failure
133
CHAIN
DRIVE SPROCKETS - usually, the driver sprocket is the smaller of the two sprockets
and the one having the highest RPM.
DRIVEN SPROCKET - this is usually the larger of the two sprockets and the one
having the slower RPM.
CHAIN PITCH - this is the distance (in inches/mm) from the centre of one
connecting pin to the centre of the next. In chains having a solid block link, the
chain pitch is on alternate spacing.
CENTRE DISTANCE - the centre distance is the distance in inches/mm between
the centres of the driver and the driven shafts.
CHAIN LENGTH - this is the distance from the centre line of the connecting pin at
one end of the strand to the empty connecting hole at the opposite end. Chains
can be measured in feet/m and inches/mm, or in pitches.
CHAIN RATING - the chain rating, or recommended working load, is the load in
pounds/kgs that the chain will satisfactorily handle over extended periods of time.
Most manufacturers rate their chains in maximum or average working load.
134
CHAIN
ULTIMATE STRENGTH - this is the strength of the chain before it will break. This IS
NOT a governing factor in the selection of the chain. However, it gives you the
shock loading capacity of the chain.
PITCH DIAMETER - this is a theoretical circle described by the centre line of the
chain as it passes over the sprocket. The PD of a sprocket is usually below the top
of the tooth or the outside diameter (OD) of the sprocket. On drives that have
shortened teeth (such as silent chains), the pitch diameter may be larger than the
diameter of the circle at the top of the teeth.
Installation of Chain Drives
The following procedure is recommended when installing a Chain Drive:
1. Check the condition of the Sprockets and make sure they are clean and free
from damage.
135
INSTALLATION OF CHAIN DRIVES
2. Align the sprockets as discussed.
3. Loosen the tighteners so that the chain will fit over the sprockets.
4. Remove the chain from its wrapping and bring the ends together over one of the
sprockets. Use the sprockets teeth to hold the chain and install the final link.
5. Fit the side plate and spring clips or whatever device is used to secure the pins.
6. Take up the slack in the drive as outlined above.
7. Lubricate the chain according to the manufacturers instructions.
8. Start up the machine and check that the chain runs through, without excessive
noise
and without binding or whipping.
9. Ensure that the lubrication system is working properly.
10. Install a suitable designed guard to prevent interference with the drive. (Do not
attempt to do this while the drive is in operation).
136
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
These are the following points to be taken into account in the
maintenance of chain drives:
1. Alignment and proper tensioning are critical to the operation of the drive.
2. Chain drives should be provided with an adequate supply of a suitable
lubricant.
3. New links should not be installed in chains that have been significantly
lengthened by wear.
4. New chains should not be installed on badly worn sprockets. Sprockets may
be reversed on the shaft to extend their life if necessary.
5. New chains should be stored in protective wrappings until ready for use
and protected from excessive heat and moisture.
6. Chain drives, like belt drives should be properly guarded and protected
from interference.
137
MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
ADVANTAGES OF CHAIN DRIVES
Chain drives are efficient and do not slip.
Chain drives are fairly flexible and reasonably inexpensive.
Chain drives keep fixed speed ratio without slipping.
Chain withstands heat and dirt better than some other drives.
Chain is less affected by weather.
Chain drives can carry heavier loads.

DISADVANTAGES
Chain drives are fairly noisy.
Most chains require frequent lubrication.
Most chains tolerate very little misalignment.
Chains cannot be used if the drives must slip.

138
MAINTENANCE OF CHAIN DRIVE
Cleaning and Oiling a Chain
Chains that are not totally enclosed with an
automatic oiling system must be cleaned
and oiled regularly to minimise wear.
Cleaning a chain
(a) Remove the chain from the drive.
(b) Roll up the chain and leave it to soak in a
bath of cleaning agent.
(c) Remove the chain and hang it vertically.
(d) Scrub the chain with a stiff brush, rinsing
the brush in the cleaning agent
frequently.
(e) Rinse the chain in fresh cleaning agent

139
MAINTENANCE OF CHAIN DRIVE
Oiling a chain
(a) Check that the chain is thoroughly clean.
(b) Roll up the chain and leave it to soak in a
bath of oil for several hours. If possible, heat the
oil so that it flows into the links more easily.
Chain Drive Wear
Worn chains or sprockets will cause the chain to
jump, and possibly come off the sprockets, this
will damage the machine and cause a
breakdown. Therefore chain drives must
frequently be checked for wear.
Checking chain wear
Chains do not wear evenly, so check the
complete lengths for wear, if any part is worn
replace the complete chain. Chains must be
thoroughly cleaned before checking for wear.
(a) Stretching Compare the compressed and
stretched lengths of the chain. The difference
between the lengths indicates the amount of
wear.

140
MAINTENANCE OF CHAIN DRIVE
(b) Bending: Bend the chain sideways.
The amount of curvature indicates the amount
of wear.
Note This check is only for simple chains
Sprocket wear
Examine the teeth on the sprocket. If the teeth
are pointed or hooked, the sprocket is worn and
should be Replaced
Chain Sprocket Alignment
Chain sprockets must be correctly aligned to
minimize chain wear and prevent the chain from
jumping off the sprockets. Sprocket alignment
must always be checked before a chain is fitted,
by placing a straight edge against both faces of
the sprocket. Ensure the sides of the chain
sprockets are clean


141
COUPLINGS
Coupling is the joining of two rotating shafts
together to transmit a rotary motion.
Couplings compensate for any misalignment
between the rotating coupled shafts.
They allow axial and end movement of the
coupled shafts.
142
Couplings
Types of Couplings
1. Flanged coupling
2. Universal joint
coupling
3. Simple coupling
4. Gear coupling
5. Disc coupling]
6. Rubber tyre coupling
Types of Couplings
7. Barrel coupling
8. Muff or split coupling
9. Chain coupling
10. Sleeve coupling
11. Pin and rubber bush
12. Spider coupling
143
Couplings
Alignment
Alignment is very crucial when using a coupling to
transmit motion because;
It prolongs the life of the coupling, bearing, shaft,
and the entire machinery.
It eliminates vibration.
TOOLS
1. Straight edge
2. Dial indicator
3. Vernier height gauge.

144
Coupling
145
Shaft coupling drive coupling
Coupling
146
Shaft coupling
COUPLINGS
147
Jaw couplings
148
Couplings
Installation For Different Types of Couplings
Chain Coupling
If the coupling has a cover, it must be packed
with grease.
Take care to prevent damage to the seals
during fitting.
When the coupling is in use, the grease must
be replenished regularly.
149
Couplings
Gear Coupling
o The sleeve have to be placed on the shafts
before the hubs are fitted.
o Take care to avoid damage to the seals in the
sleeves during assembly.
o The coupling must be lubricated according to
the manufacturers instruction after assembly.
150
Couplings
Sleeve Coupling
o The shafts must be correctly aligned before
the coupling is fitted.
o Hookes or Universal Joint
o Check the manufacturers instruction for
details of lubrication.
o On all the following couplings avoid
contamination of the rubber component by oil
or grease.
151
Couplings
Disc Couplings
o When in use, the rubber disc must be regularly
checked.
o If it is worn or torn, it must be replaced.
Pin and Rubber Bush Coupling
o Check the manufacturers instruction to see which
half of the coupling is fitted to the driving shaft and
which to the driven.
o When in use, the rubber bushes should be checked
regularly and replaced if worn or streched.
152
Couplings
Spider Couplings
o Care must be taken to avoid damage to the
spider during fitting.
o Barrel Couplings
o When in use the flexible tyre must be checked
for signs of wear.

153
Couplings
Symptoms Of Failure
Noise
If coupling hubs are not tight and wear begins to
develop, it develops clicking or a rattling noise.
Vibration
Once a coupling begins to vibrate, not only its
condition, but the conditions of other machine
elements, such as bearings, seals will begin to
deteriorate.
154
Couplings
External Damage
Causes are;
Misalignment.
Inadequate lubrication
Improper Assembly
Interference
Contamination
Overload.
155
Seals
Seals are used to prevent the leakage of fluids from
items of rotating machinery and other types of
industrial equipments.
Seal Types
Static seals are those used for sealing surfaces
between which there is no relative motion. A gasket
is a static seal.
Dynamic Seals
They are used where relative motion occurs.
Dynamic seals are often referred to as packing or
gland packing.
156
Seals
Gasket Materials
1. Rubber Bonded Cork
2. Rubber
3. Compressed Asbestos fibre
4. Plastics
5. Metals
157
Seal/Bearing Housing Assembly
158
Seal/Bearing Housing Assembly
159
1. Prior to reassembling the
Seal/Bearing Housing, carefully
check the inner surfaces of the
housing and pump shaft. They
should be free of rust and
scratches. If necessary use fine
sandpaper to clean up the
surfaces before reassembling.
Loosen the eccentric on bearing
and set screw on yoke assy in next
door above the Seal/ Bearing
Housing.
Seals
Installation of Static Seals
Most times it is necessary to make a leak-
proof joint between assembled joint.
Perfectly matched surfaces are needed to
make such a seal.
Flat seals and gaskets are either provided cut
to shape, or have to be cut from sheets of
gasket materials.
160
Seals
Installation
a. Thoroughly clean the surfaces.
b. Check that the surfaces are not buckled, dented or
cracked.
c. Put the seal on the surface.
d. Check that the gasket lies flat and is the correct size
and shape.
e. Position the mating surfaces carefully and gently.
f. Check that the seal is still correctly positioned
between the seating.

161
Seals
g. Fit the nuts or bolts and screw them up by hand.
h. Check the manufacturers instructions to see if
there is a special order for tightening the bolts and
a recommended torque value.
i. Check the joint for leaks.
j. New gaskets bed down. When the machine has
been running for a short time, re-tighten the bolts.
162
Seals
O-Rings
Elastomeric o-rings is one of the most versatile forms
of static sealing arrangements and can also be used
as a dynamic seal.
The o-ring is normally contained in a groove
machined into one of the flange faces.
The elasticity of the materials allows a good seal to
be achieved with relatively low contact pressure.
163
Seal
Crane Mechanical seal




Conical spring seal
164
Multi spring reversed
balanced balance seal
BEARING INSTALLATION , LUBRICATION
AND MAINTENANCE


165
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO BEARINGS
2. BASIC CONCEPT OF BEARINGS
3. INTRODUCTION TO TRIBOLOGY
4. FRICTION IN BEARINGS
5. BEARING AND TYPES OF LOAD
6. PARTS OF BEARINGS
7. CATEGORIES OF BEARINGS
8. BALL BEARINGS
9. ROLLER BEARINGS
10. THRUST BEARINGS
11. NEEDLE BEARINGS
12. TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
13. BEARING SELECTION PROCESS AND MOUNTING SKILLS
14. BEARING PART NUMBERING
15. BEARING MAINTENANCE

166
INTRODUCTION TO BEARING
The bearing makes
many of the
machines we use
every day possible.
Without bearings, we
would be constantly
replacing parts that
wore out from
friction.

167
INTRODUCTION TO BEARING
Have you ever wondered how things
like inline skate wheels and electric
motor spin so smoothly and quietly?
The answer can be found in a neat
little machine called a bearing.
168
MOTOR BEARING TO EASE MOTION
169
INTRODUCTION TO BEARING
We are going to look how bearings
work, look at some different kinds of
bearings and explain their common
uses as well as its lubrication, and
explore some other interesting uses
of bearings.
170
BASIC CONCEPT OF BEARING
The concept behind a bearing is very
simple: Things roll better than they
slide. The wheels on your car are like
big bearings. If you had something
like skis instead of wheels, your car
would be a lot more difficult to push
down the road.

171
BASIC CONCEPT OF BEARING
That is because when things slide,
the frictions between them causes a
force that tends to slow them down.
But if the two surfaces can roll over
each other, the friction is greatly
reduced.
172
BEARING USED TO REDUCE FRICTRION
173
BASIC CONCEPT OF BEARING
Bearings reduce friction by providing
smooth metal balls or rollers, and a
smooth inner and outer metal
surface for the balls to roll against.
These balls or rollers "bear" the load,
allowing the device to spin smoothly.

174
TRIBOLOGY
During these interactions, forces are
transmitted, mechanical energy is converted,
physical and chemical nature including surface
topography of the interacting materials are
altered.
Understanding the nature of these interactions
and solving the technological problems
associated with the interfacial phenomena
constitute the essence of tribology.
175
FRICTION
Friction is the resistance to motion that is caused
when two surfaces move against each other.
Even highly polished metal surfaces still have
rough edges on their surfaces, and these rough
spots will restrict the motion of the two pieces of
materials when they move relative to each other.
176
FRICTION
There are three basic types of friction;
I. Sliding friction
II. Rolling friction
III. Fluid friction
Sliding friction is the strongest among
them and is produced when two flat or
similar surfaces rub against each other
177
ROLLING FRICTION
This occurs when one part rolls over the
surface of the other.
This type of friction consumes less
energy than sliding friction, because
there are fewer surfaces making contact
at any time.
Ball and roller bearings are used to
reduce this kind of friction.
178
ROLLING FRICTION
179
FLUID FRICTION
Fluid friction occurs when the two
surfaces are separated by thin layers of
fluid (or lubricant).
This lubricant changes sliding or rolling
friction into the much more efficient fluid
friction.
180
BEARING FRICTION
Plain bearings are very widely used, and use
surface in rubbing contact.
With lubrication they often give entirely
acceptable life and friction.
Low friction bearings are important for
efficiency, to reduce wear and to facilitate
extended use at high speeds.
Bearings can reduce friction by virtue of its
shape, material, or
181
BEARING FRICTION

o By Shape, gains advantage usually by using
spheres or rollers.
o By Material, exploits the nature of the bearing
material used.
o By Fluid, exploits the low viscosity of a layer of
fluid, such as lubricant of as a pressurized
medium to keep the two solid parts from
touching, or by reducing the normal force
between them.
182
BEARING FRICTION
By Fields, exploits electromagnetic fields,
such as magnetic fields, to keep solid
parts from touching.

A combination of these can even be
employed within the same bearing
183
BEARING LOADS
Bearings typically have to deal with
two kinds of loading,
RADIAL and
THRUST.
Depending on where the bearing is
being used, it may see all radial
loading, all thrust loading or a
combination of both.
184
RADIAL LOADS
The bearings that support the shafts of
motors and pulleys are subject to a radial
load.

185
RADIAL LOADS
The bearings in the electric motor
and the pulley pictured above face
only a radial load. In this case, most
of the load comes from the tension
in the belt connecting the two
pulleys.
186
THRUST LOAD
The bearings in this stool are subject to a
thrust load
187
THRUST LOAD
The bearing above is like the one in a
barstool. It is loaded purely in thrust,
and the entire load comes from the
weight of the person sitting on the
stool.

188
RADIAL AND THRUST LOAD
The bearings in a car wheel are subject to both thrust and
radial loads.
189
RADIAL AND THRUST LOAD
The bearing above is like the one in
the hub of your car wheel. This
bearing has to support both a radial
load and a thrust load. The radial
load comes from the weight of the
car, the thrust load comes from the
cornering forces when you go around
a turn.

190
Common motions permitted by bearings
Axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation.
Linear motion e.g. drawer.
Spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket joint.
Hinge motion e.g. door.

191
BEARINGS
Exploded View Of A Bearing
192
BEARING PARTS
The outer race
The inner race
The balls or rollers
The cage
193
END VIEW OF A SHAFT SUPPORTED BY A
BALL OR ROLLER BEARING
194
HOW BEARING WORKS
195
THERE ARE MANY TYPES
OF BEARINGS, EACH USED
FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES.

196
CATEGORIES OF BEARINGS
There are two categories of bearings
PLAIN BEARINGS
In this kind of bearings the surface of one
component slides over the surface of another.
The surfaces in contact are specially prepared
in other to minimize friction or wear.
197
CATEGORIES OF BEARINGS
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
In this category of bearings a set of rolling
elements i.e. either balls or rollers of various
shapes are interposed between the two
surfaces in order to facilitate movement of
one with respect to the other.
The relatively small contact area of the rolling
elements helps to reduce the resistance to
relative motion.
198
BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS
Ball and roller bearings do not rub, but rather
roll between the ball or rollers and their races.
The inner race is fixed to the shaft and the
outer race is mounted in a hub or bearing
support housing.
A cage is usually there to prevent adjacent
balls or rollers from rubbing against one
another.
199
BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS
The races and balls or rollers are made from
special quality steel suitably hardened.
Cages are made from softer materials, like
bronze, aluminum or mild steel.
A single row bearing with the balls running in
grooves in the races is sometimes called a ball
race and is intended for carrying mainly radial
loads.
Double row bearings of this type are intended
for carrying heavier loads.
200
ROLLING ELEMENT BEARINGS
Ball Bearings,
Roller Bearings,
Ball Thrust Bearings,
Roller Thrust Bearings and
Tapered Roller thrust bearings.
201
BALL BEARINGS
Ball bearings, as shown below, are
probably the most common type of
bearing. They are found in
everything from inline skates to hard
drives. These bearings can handle
both radial and thrust loads, and are
usually found in applications where
the load is relatively small.
202
CUTAWAY VIEW OF A BALL BEARING
203
BALL BEARINGS
In a ball bearing, the load is
transmitted from the outer race to
the ball, and from the ball to the
inner race. Since the ball is a sphere,
it only contacts the inner and outer
race at a very small point, which
helps it spin very smoothly.
204
BALL BEARINGS
But it also means that there is not
very much contact area holding that
load, so if the bearing is overloaded,
the balls can deform or squish,
ruining the bearing.

205
ANGULAR BALL BEARING
206
ANGULAR BALL BEARING
Angular contact bearings are capable of
taking radial loads, and axial loads in one
direction only.
They are used in pairs and must be fitted
the correct way.
207
ROLLER BEARINGS
Roller bearings like the one illustrated
below are used in applications like
conveyer belt rollers, where they must
hold heavy radial loads. In these
bearings, the roller is a cylinder, so the
contact between the inner and outer
race is not a point but a line.
208
ROLLER BEARINGS
This spreads the load out over a
larger area, allowing the bearing to
handle much greater loads than a
ball bearing. However, this type of
bearing is not designed to handle
much thrust loading.

209
CYLINDRICAL ROLLER
BEARINGS

A variation of this type of bearing,
called a needle bearing, uses
cylinders with a very small diameter.
This allows the bearing to fit into
tight places.

210
NEEDLE BEARING
211
NEEDLE BEARING
212
NEEDLE BEARING
213
FEATURES OF NEEDLE BEARING
* Extremely High Speed
* Extremely Low Rolling Friction
* High Load Capacity
* High Lubrication Capacity
* Low Profile, Lightweight Caged
* Low Sensitivity to mismanagement
* Caged Needle Bearings offer up to 3X the
speed of unchanged designs
* Needles have high length to diameter
214
CUTAWAY VIEW OF A ROLLER BEARING
215
BALL THRUST BEARING
Ball thrust bearings like the one
shown below are mostly used for
low-speed applications and cannot
handle much radial load. Barstools
and Lazy Susan turntables use this
type of bearing.
216
BALL THRUST BEARING
217
ROLLER THRUST BEARING
Roller thrust bearings like the one
illustrated below can support large
thrust loads. They are often found in
gear-sets like car transmission
between gears, and between the
housing and the rotating shafts..
218
ROLLER THRUST BEARING
The helical gear used in most
transmissions have angled teeth --
this causes a thrust load that must be
supported by a bearing
219
ROLLER THRUST BEARING
220
TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
The working surfaces of both races and
rollers are conical.
Tapered roller bearings are always used
in pairs facing each other.
They are capable of dealing with
considerable axial and radial loads.
They are connected with axial
adjustments to control the amount of
play.

221
TAPERED ROLLER BEARINGS
Cutaway view of (left) a spherical roller thrust
bearing and (right) a radial tapered roller bearing
222
SELF-ALIGNING BEARINGS
Self-aligning bearings allow the shaft to run at
a right angle to the housing axis and are used
where precise alignment cannot be
maintained.
223
BEARING SELECTION PROCESS
Roller Bearing Selection Process
Bearing selection is a process for evaluating
the suitability of bearings for specific
industrial application.
The first step in bearing selection is identifying
the proper bearing type, whether it is a
cylindrical, spherical or tapered roller bearing.
224
ROLLER BEARING SELECTION PROCESS
Check size constraint or available space.
Consider minimum shaft diameter.
Consider maximum housing bore.
Check available width within the application
for the bearing.
After the bearing envelope has been defined,
search the catalog for bearings with bores,
outer diameters and widths that will fit within
the bearing envelope.
225
ROLLER BEARING SELECTION PROCESS
There may be several bearings with different
load-carrying capacities available that fit
within the envelope.
Determine which of these bearings will give
the desired life in the application by
performing a bearing life analysis for each
bearing.
Once you have chosen the right bearing to
handle the load requirements of the
application, the bearing selection is completed
with the selection of the design options.
226
SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PARTS
NUMBERING
Timken uses a part numbering system
based on the established world
numbering system for spherical roller
bearings.
The system consists of a five-digit
number, to which a variety of prefixes
and suffixes are attached, are attached,
indicating application specific design
customization.
227
SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PART
NUMBERING
Example:
T3 2 30 40 CAW33
T3 Designate carburized steel for rollers.
2 The number (2) designates a spherical roller bearing.
30 The next 2 digits (30) are referred to as the dimension series.
They define the width and outer diameter of the bearing envelope.
The first digit, which is the width series, ranges from 8,0 1,2,3,4,5,6,
with 6 being the widest.
228
SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PARTS
NUMBERING
40 The fourth and fifth digits of the part number
(40) represents the bore size in mm.
Multiply this number by 5 to get the actual bore size.
If there is a slash (/)between the third and fourth
digits, the actual bore size would follow.
This (/) rule only applies to bearings with a bore of
500 mm or larger.
Spherical roller bearing 230/500 CAW33 has a
500mm bore.

















229
SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING PARTS
NUMBERING
The system consists of cylindrical bearing design
type prefixes, dimension series, bore size, and
variety of suffixes that identify design and
application specific customization.
Example: T3 NU 22 80 MA

T3 The first prefix (T3) designates the cylindrical
bearing design having two machined flanges on
the outer ring and no flanges on the inner ring.

230
CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARING
PARTS NUMBERING
22 The digits (22) are dimension series.
80 The next two digits (80) represents the
bore size in mm.
Multiply this number by 5 to get the actual
bore size.
If there is a slash (/) between the third and the
fourth digit, the actual bore size would follow.
231
CYLINDRICAL ROLLER BEARING PART
NUMBERING
This (/) rule only applies to bearings with bore
of 500mm and larger.


Example; SRB 239/500 CAW33 has a bore of
500mm.
232
BASIC SKILLS FOR BEARING
MOUNTING
233
PRECONDITIONS OF FAULTLESS
BEARING MOUNTING
1. Keep bearings well stored in their original
packing. Unpack them only at the mounting
site immediately prior to mounting.
2. Do not wipe off or wash out anticorrosive
oil of new bearings, since the oil combines
with the lubricant and provides for sufficient
lubrication in the initial running period (oil
mating faces, wipe off surplus oil).
234
PRECONDITIONS OF FAULTLESS
BEARING MOUNTING
3. Do not perform any modification on
two bearings Subsequent drilling of
lubricating holes, machining of grooves,
flats and the like will disturb the stress
distribution in the rings resulting in
premature bearing failures. There is also
the risk of chips or grit entering the
raceway and destroying it within a short
period.
235
PRECONDITIONS OF FAULTLESS
BEARING MOUNTING
4. The mounting site must be clean and dry,
since even the smallest particles may
damage the rolling surfaces and humidity
leads to corrosion.
Avoid cleaning with compressed air. Do not
mount near right angle grinders, floor stand
grinders, lathes etc
236
PRECONDITIONS OF FAULTLESS
BEARING MOUNTING
5. Check mating parts for dimensional and
form accuracy prior to mounting, non-
observance of the tolerances for shaft and
housing seat diameters, out of roundness
of these parts, out-of-square of abutment
shoulders etc may impair bearing
performance and lead to premature failure.
237
PRECONDITIONS OF FAULTLESS
BEARING MOUNTING
6. Mounting procedure and dismounting
possibilities should be planned before the
actual assembly.
7. Compare bearing number on package or
bearing with data on drawing or parts list.
238
ARBOR PRESS
239
TYPICAL CAUSES OF BEARING
DAMAGE
A. Faulty mounting
B. Faulty lubrication
C. Foreign matter in the bearing
D. Water in the bearing arrangement
E. Inaccuracies of form of the shaft or housing seating
F. Vibration
G. Metal fatigue
240
MAINTENANCE OF ROLLER BEARING
Roller bearing Is a robust
mechanical component which
will give long service life
particularly if the bearing is
correctly mounted and well
maintained. This Simply means
that they should be protected
from dirt, moisture, and
correctly lubricated.
241
ROUTINE CHECKS DURING OPERATION
Listen,
Feel,
Look and
Lubricate- grease/ oil lubrication.
242
LISTEN
Listen - A piece of wooden listening rod or
screw driver or similar object against the
bearing housing as close to the bearing as
possible. Place the ear against the other end
and listen. If all is well, a soft purring sound
will be heard.
A damaged bearing gives out a loud noise,
often irregular and rumbling.
243
LISTEN
244
FEEL
Check the temperature of the bearing arrangement
by using a thermometer (digital thermometer) or
often simply by placing a hand on the bearing
housing. If the temperature seems usually high or
suddenly changes it is an indication that something
is wrong. The reason may be:
a. Insufficient or
excess lubricant
b. Impurities c. Overloading.
d. Bearing damage
e. Insufficient
clearance
f. Pinching
g. High friction in
the seals or heat
supplied by an
external source.
245
FEEL
246
LOOK
Ensure that lubrication does not escape
through defective seals or insufficiently
tightened plugs. Impurities generally discolour
the lubricant, making it darker. Check the
condition of the seals near the bearings to
ensure that they will not, for example, permit
hot or corrosive liquids and gasses to
penetrate the bearing arrangement.
247
LOOK
Any automatic
lubricating
devices should
also be checked
to see they
function
correctly.
248
GREASE LUBRICATION
Relubricate the bearing arrangements according to the
instructions provided by the machine manufacturer
a. Wipe lubricating nipples clean before fresh grease is
injected.
b. The housing cap or end cover must be removed, the
used grease taken out and fresh grease added.
c. The used grease should be removed and replaced
with fresh grease from time to time.
249
GREASE LUBRICATION
250
OIL LUBRICATION
a. Check the oil level and replenish if necessary
b. Ensure that the air vent of the oil level gauge is not blocked.
c. When the oil is to be changed, it is drained off and the bearing
arrangement rinsed with fresh clean oil of the same type before
refilling to the required level.
d. Check the oil if it is already contaminated
251
OIL LUBRICATION
252
MAINTENANCE OF BEARINGS
There are a number of recommended
maintenance procedures for most bearings.
These maintenance procedures are aimed at
preventing premature failure.
1. As with plain bearings, cleanliness is very
vital to the satisfactory operation of rolling
element bearings. Bearings should be kept
free of dust and dirt particles, be kept dry
and protected at all times.

253
MAINTENANCE
2. Bearings should be handled with clean, dry hands or
with clean gloves.
3. It is very important when mounting and dismounting
bearings that the correct tools are used and that they are
in good condition.
4. Bearings should be wrapped in oil-proof paper when
not in use.
254
MAINTENANCE
5. Only clean solvents and flushing oils should
be used for bearing cleaning.
6. Before installing a rolling element bearing
both the housing and shaft should be carefully
inspected for burrs, nicks and scratches that may
interfere with the fitting of the bearing.
255
MAINTENANCE
7. Bearings that are dry and un-lubricated or have not
been cleaned should not be spun.
8. Cotton waste or dirty rags should not be used to clean
bearings, but only clean lint-free rags.
9. The slushing compound used to protect a bearing in
storage need not be removed if it is petroleum based,
unless it has gone hard.
256
Maintenance
10. The force applied when mounting or dismounting a bearing
should always be applied to the ring with the interference fit
and should never be applied in such a way that the force is
transmitted through the rolling elements.
11. Never strike a bearing directly with a hammer or mallet.
12. Bearings should never be heated with a naked flame.
257