Learning objectives

Functions of mitochondria.
Locomotion of cells
Extraction of energy from nutrients
Energy is extracted from foodstuffs.
Oxygen reacts with carbohydrates, fats and
proteins under the influence of enzymes.
All these reactions occur in mitochondria.
ATP is formed.

Functional characteristics of ATP
ATP is a nucleotide composed of:-
1-The nitrogenous base adenine
2-The pentose sugar ribose
3-Three phosphate radicals
Each high energy bonds contains about
12,000 calories of energy per mole of ATP.
When ATP releases its energy, a phosphoric
acid radical is split away and ADP is formed.
ATP is called Energy currency of cell as it can
be spent and remade continually.
Chemical process in the formation of
ATP
Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle
The overall process of formation of ATP is
called Chemiosmotic mechanism.
Uses of ATP for cellular function
ATP is used for 3 major categories of
functions:-
1-Transport of substances through multiple
membranes of the cell
2-Synthesis of chemical compounds
3-Mechanical work
Locomotion of cells
2 types of movements are present:-
1- Ameboid movement
2- Ciliary movement
Types of cells that exhibit ameboid
movement
WBC
Fibroblasts
Germinal cells of skin
Movement of embryonic cells
Control of ameboid movement
Chemotaxis- Initiates movement
Chemotactic substances
Positive chemotaxis
Negative chemotaxis
Ciliary movements
Whiplike movement of cilia
Occurs in two places in humans:-
1-Respiratory airways
2-Movement of ovum from ovary to uterus
Cilium has the appearance of a sharp pointed
straight or curved hair that projects 2-4
micrometers from the surface of cell.
Almost 200 cilia on the surface of each
epithelial cell inside respiratory passages.

Cilium is covered by an outcropping of CM.
It is supported by 11 microtubules 9 double
tubules located around the periphery of the
cilium, and 2 single tubules down in the
center.
Each cilium is an outgrowth of a structure that
lies immediately beneath the CM, called the
basal body of the cilium.
Flagellum of a sperm is similar to a cilium.
Difference is that flagellum is much longer and
moves in quasi-sinusoidal waves .
Cilium moves forward with a sudden , rapid
whiplike stroke 10-20 times per second,
bending sharply where it projects from the
surface of the cell.
Then it moves backwards slowly to its initial
position.
The fluid is continually propelled in direction
of fast of fast forward stroke.
Mechanism of ciliary movement
1-Nine double tubules and two single tubules
are linked by complex of protein cross linkages
to one another.
This whole complex is called axoneme.
2-If membrane is removed and other elements
of cilium besides axoneme is destroyed, the
cilium can still beat under appropriate
conditions.

3-After destruction beating depends on:-
-Availability of ATP
-Appropriate ionic conditions esp Mg and Ca
4-During forward movement, the double tubules
on the front edge of the cilium slide outwards
towards the tip of cilium and those on back
edge remain in place.
5-Multiple protein arms composed of protein
Dynein which has ATPase enzymatic activity,
project from each double tubule toward an
adjacent double tubule.