Cell

Dr Sadia Amer
Learning objectives
To know about the life cycle of cell.
To know about Mitosis and its stages.
To know about DNA replication.
To know about the chemical and
physical events of DNA replication.
To know about the DNA repair.
To know about chromosomes and their
replication.
Life cycle of cell
It is the period from cell reproduction
to the next cell reproduction.
Involves two processes:-
Mitosis
Meiosis
Mitosis
The process by which cell splits into two
cells is called mitosis.
Stages of mitosis:-
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase


Definitions
Centrioles:-
They are short cylinder like or oval
non membranous organelles located
near the nucleus.
They are about 0.4 micrometer long.
0.15 micrometer in diameter.
Consists of nine parallel tubular
structures arranged in the form of a
cylinder.
Two pairs of centrioles lie close to
each other near one pole of the
nucleus .
The two centrioles of each pair lie at
right angles to each other.
These centrioles are also replicated
during interphase
Centromere
Each pair of centioles, along with
attached pericentriolar material is
called a centromere.
Chromosome
Chromosomes are made up of joint
molecules of DNA covered with proteins.
The complex of DNA and protein is called
chromatin.
There are 23 homologous pairs in human
somatic cells.
22 are autosomes
1 is sex chromosome
Spindle
The complex of microtubules
extending between the two new
centriole pairs is called the spindle.
Mitotic apparatus:-
The entire set of microtubules
plus the two pairs of centrioles is
called mitotic apparatus.

Aster
Before mitosis , the two pairs of
centrioles begin to move apart from each
other which is caused by polymerization
of protein microtubules.
At the same time other microtubules
grow radially away from each of the
centriole pairs, forming a spiny star
which is called aster.

MITOSIS
Prophase
Spindle is forming.
Chromosomes of the nucleus
become condensed into well defined
chromosomes.
Prometaphase
The growing microtubular spines of aster
fragment the nuclear envelope.
Multiple microtubules from the aster attach to
the chromatids at the centromeres.
The paired chromatids are still bound to each
other.
The tubules then pull one chromatid of each
pair towards one cellular pole and its partner
towards the opposite pole.
Metaphase
The two asters of mitotic apparatus are
pushed farther apart.
This occurs b/c the microtubular spines
from the two asters push each other
away.
The minute contractile protein molecules
called motor molecules composed of
muscle protein actin extend between the
respective spines.
As a result of stepping action it slides
the spines in a reverse direction
along each other.
Chromatids are pulled tightly by their
attached microtubules to the very
centre of the cell, lining up to form
equatorial plate of the mitotic
spindle.
Anaphase
The two chromatids of each
chromosome are pulled apart at the
centromere.
All 46 pairs of chromatids are separated,
forming two separate sets of 46
daughter chromosomes.
One set is pulled towards one mitotic
aster and other towards other aster.
Telophase
The two sets of daughter chromosomes
are pushed completely apart.
The mitotic apparatus dissolutes.
New nuclear membrane develops around
each set of chromosomes.
Membrane is formed from portions of ER
that are already present in cytoplasm.
The cell pinches into two, midway b/w
the two nuclei.
This is caused by formation of
contractile ring of microfilaments
composed of actin and myosin at the
juncture of newly developing cells that
pinches them off from each other.
The stage of mitosis lasts for only
about 30 minutes.
More than 95% of life cycle of even
rapidly reproducing cells is
represented by the interval b/w
mitosis, called interphase.
Replication of DNA
Reproduction takes place in nucleus and first
step is replication of all DNA in the
chromosomes.
Duplication of DNA begins 5 to 10 hrs before
mitosis and is completed in 4 to 8 hrs.
The net result is two exact replicas of all DNA.
These becomes theDNA of the two daughter
cells that will form at mitosis.
After replication there is another
period of 1 to 2 hours before mitosis
begins abruptly.
Preliminary changes are beginning to
take place that will lead to mitotic
process.
Chemical and physical events of
replication
Chemical and physical events of
replication
DNA repair
The replacement of defective areas in
DNA and their replacement by
appropriate complementary nucleotides
is referred to as the DNA proofreading.
This is achieved by DNA polymerases
and DNA ligases which are used in
replication.
Mutation
The mistake in transcription process
is termed as mutation.
Results in :-
Formation of abnormal proteins
Abnormal cellular function
Even cell death
There are about 30,000 or more
genes in human genome.
Period from one human generation
to next is about 30 years.

Chromosome and their replication