Sensory Neural Function

Sensory modalities: vision/light, touch/pressure,

pain, etc.
Unconscious

Some over-
lap of the
conscious &
unconscious
What is proprioception?

Law of specific nerve energies (specific modalities):
One type of receptor responds to one type of
sensory modality Give an example.
Receptors have various structures
Ex: Pain receptor, Pacinian Auditory
corpuscle (touch) receptor
(hair cell)
Dorsal
root
neuron
= first
order
sensory
neuron
1
Where does sensory information enter the CNS?
Where are the synaptic relays? What is the final
destination?
(brainstem ~ pons/medulla)
-Dorsal spinal cord medulla thalamus cortex
-or directly to thalamus cortex (vision)
-or directly to cortex (smell)
What happens if the information never reaches the
sensory cortex? Ex. Only to Thalamus = relay center
We will learn
the major
sensory
pathways in
later slides.
See some
summaries
below.
How does convergence of neurons
reduce the ability to locate a stimulus? Ex: reduces
ability to distinguish two points (two-point
discrimination)
How does convergence confuse the brain about stimulus
location?
the major sensory tracts are the dorsal columns and the anterolateral tracts (spinothalamic
tracts) Dorsal columns
Dorsal columns Anterolateral
cross in medulla cross in cord
pressure, vibration pain, temperature
proprioception, crude touch
fine touch
large, myelinated small fibers,
fibers unmyelinated
transmitter = transmitter =
glutamate substance P
Anterolateral tract
Learn the above information and use that information along with the next slide
to determine the effects of spinal lesions (injuries):
Lesions of the dorsal columns on one side of the cord causes loss of specific
senses (ex. pressure) on the same (ipsilateral) side below the lesion; however,
dorsal columns cross above the cord in the medulla & lesions above the cross
cause loss of sensation on the contralateral (opposite) side of the body.
Because the anterolateral (spinothalamic) tracts cross in the cord immediately
after receiving information, lesions of the anterolateral tracts in the cord cause
loss of specific senses (ex. temperature) on the opposite (contralateral) side.
See next slide and your text.
Somatic sensory pathways (tracts) in spinal cord
Anterolateral
tracts cross in the cord
and ascend on
contralateral side
See red tract
Each side of the cortex receives sensations from the
contralateral (opposite) side. Remember that both the
dorsal columns and the anterolateral tracts eventually cross
to the opposite side; therefore, lesions in the primary
sensory cortex cause loss of sensation on the contralateral
side of the body. Medulla
Dorsal columns ipsilateral until medulla
Cross in medulla black tract
The cartoon-like image displayed on top of the brain
is called a somatosensory homunculus. Note the
upside-down arrangement of the sensory cortex: The
top of the cortex receives input that originated in lower
body areas as the foot. Only a small area of the
sensory cortex is devoted to the trunk, and a large area
receives sensation from the mouth and face.
Receptive Fields
The receptive field of a neuron is the area in the periphery (area of
receptors) that receives signals and sends them to the neuron.

To define the receptive field of a neuron: Record from the neuron while
stimulating various peripheral areas. When a signal is recorded, we can
draw a map of the peripheral area (the receptive field) that received &
sent signals. The figure below shows receptive fields of both the primary
dorsal root neurons and the secondary neuron in the CNS. DRAW A
LINE AROUND THE RECEPTIVE FIELD OF THE SECONDARY NEURON.
Stimulate
Record
Record
Annular Dorsal root
receptive field neurons
on skin Dorsal
- column neuron
- - inhibitory
+ - (-) interons
- - (-)

-

An annular receptive field (off-center and on-surround) may result from the following
connecting neurons

+
-
+ - (-)
+


Complicated receptive fields - Ex. Annular Receptive field of one dorsal column
neuron cell body located in the medulla oblongata. This neuron (pink below)
generates spontaneous low-frequency tonic signals even when not stimulated.
Pink neuron turned off or stimulated by dorsal root neurons.
Recording = \ \ \ \ \ \ impulses if no stimulation to the skin (tonic signals).
Recording = no impulses if press on the skin in () areas of skin.
Recording = \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ if press on the skin in the (+) areas.
Why is the annular receptive field designated On-center/Off-Surround?
Recording here
Stimulating
here
Important terminology:
Generator potentials = Changes in receptor membrane
potential
Sensory stimulus graded changes in receptor voltage
(generator potentials)
Summation to threshold

Action potential in sensory nerve
How are EPSPs and generator potentials similar & different?

Sensory Coding = mechanisms used to determine the
following properties of a stimulus:
Stimulus modality How does the brain know the type of
stimulus (light, temperature, etc.)?
Stimulus location How does the brain know the location of
a stimulus?
Stimulus intensity - How know stimulus strength?
Stimulus duration How know the time a stimulus lasts?
Coding for stimulus modality: If pain and temperature
come from the same peripheral area, how does the CNS
distinguish the type of stimulus? by label line coding -
one receptor and its nerve fiber transmit only one type
of sensation. Ex: if one touches a photoreceptor or the
nerve from a photoreceptor, the patient detects light, not
touch.

Coding for stimulus location (1) by the law of
projection - if a sensory nerve is stimulate at any point
along the nerve fiber, the CNS interprets the location of the
stimulus at the receptor (sensations are projected to
the site of the receptor). The brain area that receives the
signal believes the stimulus came from the receptor. The
law of projection and label-line coding help to explain the
phantom limb.
Coding for stimulus location (2) by
timing of stimuli arriving at the brain
(see Figure on next slide to
understand how timing of signals
enables us to determine the location
of sounds).

Coding for stimulus location (3) by
lateral inhibition See Figure at right
to see how neurons in the direct
path from the stimulus suppress
signals from lateral neurons, which
helps to locate the stimulus
precisely.
Ex. of location of stimulus by timing of signal arrival
Coding for stimulus intensity If action potentials in
sensory nerves are all-or none, how does the CNS know
the difference between a strong stimulus and weak
stimulus? by two mechanisms: frequency coding and
population coding

Frequency coding - A stronger stimulus causes action
potentials to be generated at a higher frequency
(increased number of action potentials per unit time)
weak stimulus | | | | strong stimulus |||||||||

Population coding - A stronger stimulus affects a larger
population of receptors, a larger number of receptors

Sensory Adaptation- Failure to detect continuous,
repetitive stimuli after some period of time.
Touch is a rapidly adapting sensation, and pain is a slowly
adapting sensation.


Tonic and phasic receptors
Tonic receptors continuously generate action potentials
(turned on continuously) and change the frequency of
action potentials when there is a change in stimuli. Tonic
receptors usually are slowly adapting.
Phasic receptors respond (generate action potentials) only
when when there is a change in intensity; if there is no
change in intensity of a stimulus, phasic receptors rapidly
adapt. In other words, phasic receptors turn off when there
is no change in stimulus intensity. (Ex. smell)
Examples of touch/pressure receptors and pain receptors
(nociceptors) Although most pain fibers are unmyelinated, the
small, fast pain fibers are myelinated. Note the picture below of 5
types of touch receptors & the free nerve endings that are pain
receptors. The change of shape of touch receptors may cause voltage
changes (generator potentials) that sum to threshold potential.
Stimulated & Adapted
Pacinian corpuscles
Unstimulated
Pacinian
corpuscle
What is the explanation for referred pain?
Explain the diagram above. Is this divergence or
convergence of sensory information? Remember: The
brain refers to the area from which it usually receives
signals.
Modulation of incoming sensory information (1) by other
sensory neurons -see next slide (Ex. touching or rubbing an
area located close to a painful stimulus may reduce the signal in
the pain neuron because the touch neuron activates a small
inhibitory neuron that influences the pain pathway (next slide). If
the inhibitory neuron has a synapse on the receptor of the
incoming sensory neuron, it will exert postsynaptic inhibition of
the sensory neuron. See next slide.
Usually inhibitory neurons release gaba, but some inhibitory
neurons release the opioid - enkephalin, which inhibits release
of the neurotransmitter substance P from pain fibers
(presynaptic inhibition - See slide from lecture prior to Exam 1).
(2) Also, a motor neuron in the brain may send a signal to a
small inhibitory neuron in the spinal cord that inhibits
release of neurotransmitter by the sensory neuron (presynaptic
inhibition) See next slide red descending pathway.

When would inhibition of pain fibers be beneficial to an animal?
Descending motor neuron
may modulate sensory neurons
A nearby sensory
neuron may
modulate a
sensory pathway
The pain fiber releases what neurotransmitter?
What spinal inhibitory neurotransmitter is released by inter-neurons
that inhibit release of the pain neurons neurotransmitter?
What other inhibitory neurotransmitter is released by inter-neurons?
Explain pre- and post-synaptic inhibition? see slides before exam 1
Try to answer this example question:

1. If the dorsal column on the left side of the spinal
cord is damaged, the patient will lose

(a) vibration on the left side below the injury

(b) vibration on the right side below the injury

(c) temperature sensation on the right side below the
injury

(d) a and c

(e) b and c
Special Senses

Chemoreceptive Senses: Smell and Taste

Olfactory bulb area of the brain receiving signals from
the primary olfactory neurons see next slide; this area is
proportionally larger in dogs and rats than in human beings.
Olfactory receptors in the olfactory
epithelium in the nose = metabatropic
receptors linked to G proteins, which
stimulate second messengers, which
open ion channels. Secondary and
higher order neurons project to the
olfactory cortex, hippocampus,
amygdala
Unlike other neurons, olfactory receptors can divide to replace worn-out
receptor cells. Because the axons of the newly formed cells must find their
way to the olfactory bulb, the receptor cells also are a model for determining
how developing neurons find the correct target.
Taste

Many different signal transduction mechanisms enable
the taste receptors to discriminate 5 taste modalities:
sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami (responds to
taste-enhancing stimuli).

Taste receptors are clustered in taste buds on the
tongue.
Receptors for salty and sour are ion channels
(which ions? See next slide )
Receptors for the other tastes are linked to G-proteins.

Note in figure on next slide - All of the signal
transduction mechanisms of the taste buds
eventually increase intracellular calcium

Signal transduction mechanisms of the taste buds
increase intracellular calcium release of neurotransmitter
action potentials in primary gustatory neurons medulla
secondary neurons in medulla thalamus
tertiary neurons in thalamus gustatory cortex.

HEARING
We characterize sound waves by pitch and loudness.
Pitch is determined by the frequency of the sound waves
measured in hertz (Hz, waves/sec).
High frequency waves high-pitched sounds
Low frequency waves low-pitched sounds.

Human ears sometimes detect frequencies 20 20,000
Hz. Most acute hearing in humans 1000 - 3000 Hz.
Mice, dogs hear ultra-high frequency sounds and others,
Elephants hear ultra-low frequency sounds not detected by
humans.

Loudness (intensity) of sounds depends on amplitude of
sounds waves - measured in bels or decibels (dB).

normal conversation ~ 60 dB
80 dB often damage sound receptors
How does the frequency of sound waves in the right
and left panels differ? Does the amplitude of the
waves differ in the two panels?

What does this tell you about the pitch and loudness
of the sounds graphed in the two panels?
Graphs of sound waves illustrate the frequency &
amplitude of the waves
The inner ear contains (1) sound receptors in the cochlea, and
(2) Receptors for equilibrium in the vestibular apparatus (the
semicircular canals, and two otolith organs called the utricle and
saccule).

The middle ear is the amplification area of the ear (tympanic
membrane = eardrum and the ear bones).

outer ear = pinna - directs sound waves and aids with localizing
sounds
Cochlea and auditory (cochlear) nerve
Cochlear Nerve


Medulla oblongata

Thalamus Auditory cortex
Organ of Corti in the cochlea contains the hair cells shown
on the next slide. These Hair cells = Sound Receptors.
Hair cells in the cochlea These hair cells are sound
receptors, just as rods and cones are photo-
receptors.
Sound waves cause vibrations of the tympanic
membrane, ear bones, and fluids of the ear, which
promotes action potentials in hair cells in the cochlea.
Hair cells within the cochlea are the sound receptors.
When stimulated, hair cells release neurotransmitter
that binds to receptors on the auditory nerve endings.
Auditory nerve action potentials activate medullary
nuclei medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus
temporal cortex (auditory cortex). Note Path
Hair cells bend backwards to close ion channels and turn
off signals.
Coding pitch = coding the frequency of sound waves:
frequency coding: High frequency sounds create maximal
displacement of the basilar membrane near the oval window
and do not travel far into the cochlea.
Low frequency sounds travel along the basilar membrane and
reach peak amplitude at the apex of the cochlea
base apex
Coding the loudness of sound = coding the amplitude of
the sound wave, which is coded by the number of action
potentials generated.
(High amplitude sounds (louder sounds) stimulate more action
potentials per unit time).
CAUTION: Do not confuse frequency of action potentials
indicating loudness with frequency of sound waves = pitch.

One Unusual feature: Projection of auditory signals to the
cortex differs from projection of most somatosensory
information Auditory nerves from each ear project to both
sides of the brain.

Coding location of sounds: The brain compares
differences in the timing and intensity of sounds to locate a
particular sound (e.g., sounds reach the two ears at slightly
different times - see next slide)
Coding location of a sound by timing of signal arrival
Hearing Disorders:
Nerve deafness: Examples include sensorineural
hearing loss = damage to hair cells from loud noises
and central hearing loss due to damage to the
auditory nerve or the auditory cortex. These disorders
are not improved significantly with a hearing aid.
Conduction deafness (amplification problem) Ex:
otosclerosis inflammation of the ear bones. Improved
with a hearing aid.
Weber-Rennie test can be used as a crude
screen for the above types of deafness. All deaf patients
cannot hear a tuning fork, but patients with conduction
deafness notice improved hearing if the fork is placed on
a jaw bone or on the forehead Why?.
Auditory aphasia (lesion in the auditory
association cortex preventing interpretation of
sounds). Ex. Patient may hear voices as sounds but not
realize that the sounds are voices.
Equilibrium - vestibular system in the inner ear.
semicircular canals - receptors for rotational
acceleration within cristae
otolith organs = utricle and saccule - receptors for
linear acceleration and head position within maculae
Vestibular
apparatus is
NOT pointing to
the cochlea. It
consists of
utricle, saccule,
and semi-
circular canals.
Cochlea has
receptors for?
All vestibular receptor cells are hair cells.
Receptor areas of the semicircular canals = cristae
consisting of [cupula = gelatinous masses + hair cells],
which bend when the head is rotated (rotational
acceleration).
Receptor areas of the utricle and saccule = maculae
which contain hair cells + otoliths (crystals embedded in
gelatinous material), The otoliths move in response to
gravity (linear acceleration) bending hair cells.
Hair cells of the vestibular apparatus stimulate the
vestibular nerve,
which projects either directly to the cerebellum or
to the vestibular nuclei of the medulla,
which then send axons to the cerebellum, which is
the major final destination of most vestibular
information. In other words, the cerebellum integrates
signals for equilibrium. Note path


Visual and proprioceptive information and vestibular
signals are used by the cerebellum to coordinate
equilibrium.
not a good image of fovea see subsequent slides
Retina interrupted by the optic nerve
Blind spot
Fig. 10-2-e. Know the cells of the retina & path of
signals: Light Rods & Cones Signal Bipolar
cells Ganglion cells Optic Nerve
[amacrine and horizontal cells = modulating cells]
Note that
light must
travel
through
other cells to
reach the
rods and
cones. Then
neuronal
signals go in
opposite
direction
through cells
This figure has a better illustration of the fovea. The
fovea is an area of high acuity vision (sharp vision).
What anatomical feature allows sharp focus? See above
Substitute this image for
the ones in your book.
This figure clarifies that
the left field is what is
seen by the left eye, and
right field is what is seen
by the right eye.
Know that lateral
outer fibers carry nasal
field information and do
not cross. Inner fibers
carry temporal
information and do
cross.
Know these lesions:
# 2 Cutting one optic
nerve loss of all vision
from same eye.
# 5 Cutting optic tract
Loss of nasal field from
same eye and temporal
field from the other eye.




When cutting optic tract on one side, explain why you
lose the temporal field from the opposite side. Clue
involves fibers.
Accomodation = adjusting the shape of the lens to keep objects in
focus. Near response = adjustments to view objects near the eyes.
Near responses include: accomodation, pupillary constriction and
convergence of the visual axes. Different groups of ocular muscles
are responsible for each component of the response.
Accomodation is only one part of the near response
Photoreceptors (rods and cones).
Cones - most important for high-acuity (sharp) day vision
and color vision. Rods - very sensitive to dim light,
especially important for night vision. Both needed for
dark adaptation.
Signal transduction in photoreceptors
Light change in
Rhodopsin
Activates Transducin
cGMP GMP
CLOSE Na+ channels
Hyperpolarization
of photoreceptors
decreased release
of Neurotransmitter

Darkness
Depolarization
of photoreceptors
Caution:
It is
unusual
for a
stimulus
to hyper-
polarize
Decreases
the tonic
inhibition of
Bipolar cells
Common Visual disorders

Look at the visual defects in the figure below. Recall
that light should be focused on the retina.
Myopia light is focused in front of the retina
(near-sighted corrected with concave lens)
Hyperopia light is focused behind the retina.
(far-sighted corrected with convex lens)
Retina
Astigmatism = blurred image due to abnormal curvature of
the cornea.

Presbyopia = poor accomodation due to aging. The lens
hardens with aging, which limits changes in shape.

Abnormalities of color vision are usually inherited; can be
detected with Ishihara plates
Example: Do you see a number on the plate below? People
with red/green color blindness may not see a number All
dots may appear to be the same color or black or gray.