Diode and Transistor

Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu

Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Lecture 4

Diode
Diode curves
Rectification


Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Doping (N- and P-type semiconductors)
Extrinsic semiconductors
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Elemental semiconductors consists of group-IV of periodic table.
Doping with group-V elements make them N-type.
Doping with group-III elements make them P-type.
N-type material
P
Si Si
Si
P
Si Si Si
Si Si
P
Si Si
Si
P
Si Si Si
Si Si
P
Si
P
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Phosphorus, a pentavalent atom,
is donating an electron to the
Crystal so it is called donor
impurity. There will be as many
such electrons as the number of
P dopant atoms. These electrons
are free to move and available for
conduction.

P-type material
Al
Si Si
Si
Al
Si Si Si
Si Si
Al
Si Si
Si
Al
Si Si Si
Si Si
Al Si
Al
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Aluminum, a trivalent atom,
produces hole and ready to accept
and electron, so it is called an
acceptor impurity. There will be
as many such holes as the number
of Al dopant atoms. These holes
are free to move and available for
conduction.

PN-Junction
Si
Si Si
Si Al
Si Si
Si
Al Si Al Si
Si Si Si Si
Al Si Al Si
P
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
P
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
P Si P Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
A junction is formed when on side of semiconductor is doped by n-type and other side by p-
type impurity.
Diodes (The PN Junction)
Diodes (The PN Junction)
The free electrons in
the n region are
randomly drifting in
all directions. At the
instant of the pn
junction formation, the
free electrons near the
junction in the n
region begin to diffuse
across the junction
into the p region
where they combine
with holes near the
junction. The same is
true for the p-type
material.
Diodes (The Depletion
Region)
When the pn junction
is formed, the n region
loses free electrons as
they diffuse across the
junction. This creates
a layer of positive
charges (ions) near the
junction. As the
electrons move across
the junction, the p
region loses holes as
the electrons and holes
combine. This creates
a layer of negative
charges (ions) near the
junction. These two
layers of positive and
negative charges form
the depletion region.
PN-Junction
Si
Si Si
Si Al
Si Si
Si
Al Si Al Si
Si Si Si Si
Al Si Al Si
P
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
P
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
P Si P Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Electrons and holes present near the junction recombine. Electrons diffuse to the left leaving
behind pentavalent atom as positive ion in N-type and trivalent atom as a negative ion in P-
type. Hole disappears and electrons becomes a valance electron. A pair of ions form a dipole.
Electron hole diffusion
Al
Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si
Al Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Al Si Si
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
Si Si
Si P
Si Si
Si
Si P Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Depletion Region and Barrier potential
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Electrons diffuse to the left forming dipoles, positive ions are formed in N-type side and
negative ions in P-type side. As dipoles build up, region near the junction is emptied of
carriers. This region is charged region (having +ve and ve ions) but have no charge carrier
(electrons and holes), and is called depletion region. Since dipole has an electric field
between +ve and ve ions, when fresh electrons try to enter the depletion region, electric field
try to push them back. Strength of field increase with each crossing electron until equilibrium
is reached and stops further diffusion of electrons. This is barrier potential whose value is
0.7V for silicon.
Formation of depletion region in pn-junction:
Diodes (Forward Bias )
To bias a pn junction, apply an external dc voltage across it. Forward bias
is the condition that allows current through a pn junction. The picture
shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material (contacts and
wire) across a pn junction in the direction to produce forward bias.
This external bias voltage is designated as V
BIAS
. Notice that the negative
side of V
BIAS
is connected to the n region of the pn junction and the
positive side is connected to the p region. This is one requirement for
forward bias. A second requirement is that the bias voltage, V
BIAS
, must be
greater than the barrier potential (0.7V in silicon and 0.3 in germanium).
Diodes (Forward Bias )
Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-voltage
source "pushes" the free electrons, which are the majority carriers
in the n region, toward the pn junction. This flow of free electrons
is called electron current. The negative side of the source also
provides a continuous flow of electrons through the external
connection (conductor) and into the n region as shown.
Forward biased pn-junction
Depletion region and potential barrier reduced
Reverse biased diode
Depletion region becomes wider,
barrier potential higher
Biasing of diode
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Biasing is to apply voltage for current flow in a diode. It is of two types
Forward biasing
Reverse biasing
Forward biasing
In forward biasing, P-side is connected to +ve and N-side to ve terminal of battery. Battery pushes
electrons and holes towards the junction. If battery voltage is less than barrier potential (0.7V for
Silicon), free electrons do not have enough energy to get through depletion region. Otherwise, free
electrons have enough energy to pass through depletion region and combine with holes which
produces a continuous current. Therefore current easily flows when diode is forward biased and
width of depletion region becomes smaller.
Diode act as a complete circuit and conducts during such forward biasing.
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
In reverse biasing, P-side is connected to ve and N-side to +ve terminal of battery. Negative
terminal of battery attracts holes and positive terminal of battery attracts electrons away from the
junction. Therefore depletion region widens and opposes the flow of current across junction. The
wider the depletion layer, greater the junction potential. Depletion region stop growing when
junction potential equals the applied reverse voltage. Therefore electrons and holes stop moving
away from junction then.
Diode act as an open circuit and does not conduct during such reverse biasing.
Reverse biasing
Reverse minority saturation current
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
In reverse biasing a small current exists which is due to flow of minority charge carriers. Such
minority charge carriers are electrons in P-side and holes in N-side produce due to bonds broken by
thermal energy. Most of these minority carriers recombine with majority carriers but those present
inside depletion region may cross the junction produces small current called reverse current. This
is also called minority saturation current, since it does not depend upon battery but temperature.
Besides this thermally produced minority carrier current, a small current flows on the surface of
crystal (due to surface impurities) called surface leakage current.

Diode breakdown
(Process of avalanche)
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Diodes have maximum voltage ratings. There is a
limit to how much reverse voltage a diode can
withstand before it destroyed. If reverse voltage is
continuously increases, there will be breakdown
voltage. For most of diodes it is nearly 50 V. After
increases applied voltage more than breakdown
voltage a large number of minority charge carriers
appear and diode conducts heavily. These large
number of carriers are produced by avalanche
effect.
When reverse voltage is increased it forces
minority carriers more quickly which collide with
atoms of crystals and knock valence electrons
producing free electrons. The process is geometric
producing 1,2,4,8. Electrons.
Exceeding breakdown voltage does not
necessary mean the destroy of diode.
Diode curves
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Forward Region
When diode is forward biased. Voltage at which current rapidly Increases is called
Knee voltage. It is equal to barrier potential. For Silicon it is 0.7V, for Germanium It is 0.3V.
Reverse Region
When diode is forward biased, current is very small.
Forward (closed) and Reveres (open)
biasing of diode.
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Half wave rectifier
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.
Rectification is process of conversion of AC to DC.
Input A.C Output D.C
Full wave rectifier
Full wave rectifier (Bridge rectifier)
Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of
Physics, University of Gujrat.