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This document provides an overview of statistics as a field of study. It discusses the history and development of statistics from ancient times to modern applications. Statistics is defined as the collection, analysis, and interpretation of quantitative data. There are two main categories: descriptive statistics, which involves summarizing and describing data; and inferential statistics, which involves drawing conclusions from data. Key concepts covered include variables, populations, samples, and examples of descriptive and inferential statistical methods.
This document provides an overview of statistics as a field of study. It discusses the history and development of statistics from ancient times to modern applications. Statistics is defined as the collection, analysis, and interpretation of quantitative data. There are two main categories: descriptive statistics, which involves summarizing and describing data; and inferential statistics, which involves drawing conclusions from data. Key concepts covered include variables, populations, samples, and examples of descriptive and inferential statistical methods.
This document provides an overview of statistics as a field of study. It discusses the history and development of statistics from ancient times to modern applications. Statistics is defined as the collection, analysis, and interpretation of quantitative data. There are two main categories: descriptive statistics, which involves summarizing and describing data; and inferential statistics, which involves drawing conclusions from data. Key concepts covered include variables, populations, samples, and examples of descriptive and inferential statistical methods.
Masters in Business Administration 1 st Trimester 2014-2015
Professor Ivy M. Boca, MPA Introduction to Statistics
Background and Development of Statistics Statistical information and development can be traced back from ancient times. - Agricultural crops, taxes, athletics events, commerce and trade, etc. - Statistical work has continued to have a marked influence on the activities of mankind in a wider scope from describing important features of the data and analyzing them. - Biostatistics is the branch of applied statistics that concerns the application of statistical methods to medicine and biological problems. - The present state of the science and art of statistic is an outcome of the very active researches of the statisticians during the past 400 years. - John Graunt an English man in 1662 observed that percentages of deaths and suicides, accidents and various diseases remained remarkable constant throughout the years.
- Abraham de Moivre discovered the equation of the normal distribution in 1773. - Carl Gauss who made its derivation from study of errors in repeated measurement which he called Gaussian Distribution. - Sir Francis Galton & Karl Pearson developed the theory of regression and correlation. - Adolf Quetelet a Belgian is referred to as the Father of Modern Statistics.Considers Statistics as queen of science. - William S. Gosset developed the small-sample theory and further developed by Sir Ronald Fisher in the 20 th Century.
Meaning of Statistics Statistics refers to set of pertinent activities such as collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of quantitative data. A field of study which deals with mathematical characterization of a group or group of items. Collection of data refers to the process of gathering numerical information.( interview, questionnaire, experiments, observation & documentary analysis). Once the data are gathered, the next step is statistical inquiry is the presentation of data in appropriate tables ( refer to frequency distribution which may be one- dimensional or two-dimensional) and graphs which includes bar graphs, frequency polygon, pie-graph, etc.)
>Analysis of the data refers to activity of describing the properties or behavior of the data or the possible correlation of different quantities or variables.( can be obtained after summarizing the data into measurement like the averages). Finally, interpretation has to be made based on the preliminary activities and other statistical methods. ( such methods involve testing the significance of the results).
Nature of Statistics: Two Sub-areas/Categories 1. Descriptive Statistics Field of statistics that includes the methods of collecting, classifying, graphing, and averaging data with objective of simply describing the properties or characteristics of the data on hand. The task of the statistician in this area is simply to select a few procedures, do some averaging and eventually be able to identify significant features of the given data. 2. Inferential Statistics Demands a higher degree of critical judgment and advanced mathematical models. Concerned on drawing conclusion or generalization from organized data. Task of the statistician is not just to devise ways to give a summary description of the data but ways to test the significance of the results.
Its main concern is to analyze the organized data leading to prediction or inference. It implies that before carrying out an inference, appropriate and correct descriptive measures or methods are employed to bring about good results. The area o f inferential statistics called hypothesis testing. Examples of Descriptive & Inferential Statistics Descriptive 1. Based on the research conducted by the DOH 63% of those found to have diabetes were not aware that they have such disease. 2. Cigarettes were associated with 29% of the 4,470 civilian fire deaths in 1989. 3. According to the nationwide survey, the three highest responses to persons living with older persons are: grandchild (61.8%), spouse (59%) and daughter ( 50.9%). 4. According to the Court Administration of the Phils. 14% of trail-ready civil actions and equity cases in Metro Manila during 1993 were decided in less than six months. Inferential 1. Drinking red wine may reduce the risk of heart disease by 12%. 2. Aspirin may lower the rate of heart attacks by 50%. 3. Carrot juice may strenghten the lungs. 4. Eating chilli food may cause shrinkage of the liver. 5. Drinking coffee may help reduce the sugar level of diabetic person. SAMPLE & POPOULATION Population - refers to the groups or aggregate of people, objects, materials, events, or things of any form. Sample - is a subgroup of a population. - taken from the population so as to represent the population characteristics or traits. The measure of the population are called Parameters. The measure of samples are called estimates or statistics. Contrast Between Population & Sample Example of Population Example of Sample 1. Scores of entire students of secondary level. 2. All children of any ages who have older or younger siblings. 1. Scores of students in a class. 2. The 40 children who actually participated in one specific study about siblings. How to determine the sample size? What must be the percentage of the sample size to the population size? Formula n = N 1 + Ne
Where: N = is the population size e = is the margin of error n = is the sample size
Example 1 Find the sample size if the population size is 250 at 95% accuracy.
Solution: At 95% accuracy, the corresponding percentage error is 5% or 0.5 n = N 1 + Ne
n = 250 1 + 250 ( .05 ) n = 153.85
n = 154
Therefore at 95% accuracy , we can take a sample of 154 members from a population of 250.
Example 2 A research is conducting an investigation regarding the factors affecting the efficiency of the 185 faculty members of a certain college. If he wanted to have a margin of error of 5%, then how of the faculty members should be taken as respondents? Solution : The population size shall be represented by the entire faculty force of the college. Hence, N= 185. At 5% margin of error, the sample size n shall be
n = ___185____ 1 + 185 ( .05 )2 n = 126.50 n = 126
ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS To round off a number to a desired approximate value, we shall consider the following rules: 1. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is less than 5, change all the digits that are to the right of the last retained digit zero. 2. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is greater than 5, then simply add one to the last retained digit. 3. If the number to be dropped is exactly equal to 5, then a. add 1 to the last retained digit if it is odd. b. the last retained digit is unchanged if it is even. Round off the following numbers to the indicated decimal place value
1. 987.3567 to two decimal places 2. 5,555.555 to one decimal places 3. 458.785 to two decimal places 4. 35.575 to two decimal places 5. 234.4346 to two decimal places Solution: 1. 987.3567 = 987.36 2. 5,555.555 = 5,555.6 3. 458.785= 458.78 4. 35.575= 35.58 5. 234.4346 = 234.43
Variables and Data Variable - Is a characteristic that takes two or more values which varies across individuals. - The characteristic that is being studied. Two types of Variable or Data 1. Qualitative variables represent differences in quality, character or kind but not in amount. Non numeric variables. Examples: sex, birth,geographical locations, religious preference, marital status and eye color. 2. Quantitative variables are numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked. Examples: weight, height,age, test scores, speed and body temperature. Classification of Quantitative Variables 1. Discrete variable is a varaible whose values can be counted using integral values such as number of enrollees,drop-outs,graduates in a certain college,deaths, number of employees, number of students in a classroom,number of cars owned, number of calls received by an operator. - assumes integral values. 2. Continuous variable is a variable that can assume any numerical value over an interval or intervals. - yields decimal or fractions. Examples: Height, weight,temperature , time, pressure in a tire, and number of miles driven. A variable can be dependent or independent depending o its use
Predictor the variable whose value is being predicted.
Example To predict the value of sunlight on the growth of a certain plant, the dependent variable is the growth of the plant while the independent variable is the amount of sunlight exposed to the plant.
Observing the values of a variable yields data. A set of data is a collection of values for a particular variable. Terms such as qualitative, quantitative, discrete and continuous are also to described data.
Scales of Measurement of Data (Stanley Stevens Psychologist Researcher 1946 ) Measurement Scale the manner of assigning a numerical value to a variable. Level of Measurement relates to the rules used to assign scores and is in an indication of the kind of information that the scores provides.
1. NOMINAL use number for the purpose of identifying name or membership in a group or category. It consist of naming observations or classifying them into various mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories. All qualitative variables are measure on a nominal scale, classified and counted without particular order or ranking imposed on data. Note: a sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories (e.g. male/female) is called dichotomous. If you are a student, you can use that to impress your teacher. Example of Nominal Data Report on number of persons involved in different religions in a certain school.
Religion Number ( Person) Catholic 1,170 Protestants 45 Iglesia ni Cristo 62 El Shaddai 25 No religions 93 Not reported 153 Other examples of Nominal Data 1. Political Party 2. Marital Status 3. Brand of soaps purchased 4. Diagnosis 5. Major field of study 6. Names of schools attended 7. Classifying residents according to zip code 8. Classifying survey subjects according to gender 9. Telephone numbers 10. Species of flowers
2. ORDINAL DATA Connote ranking of inequalities. One category is higher than the other one. In this type of data, numbers represent greater than or less than . Examples: 1. Levels of Intelligence excellent, very satisfactory, satisfactory, good, fair. 2. Social Class or Income Upper,Middle,Lower. 3. Stages of cancer Stage 1,2,3, 4 4. Built of person small,medium,large. 5. Rating scales based on scores and percentage.
3. INTERVAL DATA Indicate an actual amount and there is equal unit measurement separating each score, specifically equal intervals. Not only include greater than and lesser than relationships, but also has a limit measurement that permits us to describe how much more or less one object possessed than another. Examples: 1. The difference between 2 and 3 is the same as the difference between 3and 4. 2. The 4 kilos corn is twice that of 2 kilos.
4. RATIO DATA Are similar to interval data but has an absolute zero and multiple and are meaningful. Include all the usual measurements of length,height,weight,area,volume,density, velocity,money and duration. These are highest level of measurement. Advanced Notes: References: Bolanos,Alex B.(2001)Probability and Statistical Concepts: AN INTRODUCTION. Manila,Philippines.REX Book Store, Inc.
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