Absorption from the gastrointestinal tract

* The small intestine is the main absorptive organ (90% of ingested

foodstuffs & H2O).

* Little absorption takes place in stomach (Alcohol & drugs).

* More H2O & electrolytes are absorbed in the large intestine.

1) Absorption of carbohydrates:
* All carbohydrates are absorbed in
the form of monosaccharides {glucose
(80%) & galactose & fructose
(20%)}.
* Glucose is transported by the
co-transport mechanism.
A form of active transport.
So, it is called a sodium-glucose co-
transport mechanism.
* Also, galactose is transported by the
co-transport mechanism.
* On the other hand, fructose is
transported by facilitated diffusion.
.Note: * Fructose & galactose are readily converted to glucose by the liver

:Absorption of proteins( 2

* Absorption of amino acids takes place by a sodium co-transport

mechanism.

:Absorption of fats( 3

* Monoglycerides & fatty acids enter the mucosal cells by passive

diffusion.

* Short-chain & medium-chain fatty acids are absorbed directly

into portal blood.

* Long-chain fatty acids are reesterified forming triglycerides in

the mucosal cells which are then coated with a layer of
lipoprotein, cholesterol, phospholipid to form chylomicrons which
enter the lymph vessels (lacteals).
 Metabolism
Food materials (after absorption) may be:
1) Oxidized to release energy in a process called catabolism.
2) Used for formation of new tissues OR stored in some forms (fat &
glycogen) in a process called anabolism.
* The two processes occur simultaneously in the body.

Free energy:
It is the amount of energy liberated by complete oxidation of a food.

It is expressed as calories per mole of food substance e.g. 1 mole of

glucose (=180 g) → 686000 calories.
When the energy is not used, it is stored in high energy molecules
such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Adenine
+ OH OH OH
Adenosine P O P O P OH
Ribose
O O O
High energy phosphate bonds (12000 calories(
 Carbohydrate metabolism
The metabolism of carbohydrates may be subdivided into:
1- GLycogenesis:
* It is formation of glycogen in all cells especially liver & muscle
cells.
* It takes place when the blood glucose level is above normal value
{80-120 mg% i.e. 80-120 mg/100 ml blood}.
* It is facilitated by insulin (a hormone secreted by β-cells of the
pancreas).
2- Glycogenolysis:
* It is breakdown of glycogen to reform glucose in the cells.
* It takes place when the blood glucose level is below normal value
(80-120 mg%).
* It is facilitated by glucagon (a hormone secreted by α-cells of the
pancreas) & adrenaline (a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland).
3- GLycolysis:
* It is breakdown of glucose forming either pyruvic or lactic acid in
10-11 successive chemical reactions.
* It takes place in the cytosol (cytoplasm) yielding small amount of
energy.
 Glucose
:Steps of gLycolysis
ATP ADP
1
Glucose 6- phosphate
2
Fructose 6- phosphate ADP
ATP
3
Fructose 1,6-diphosphate
4
2 Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
5
2(Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) 4H
6
2(1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid) 2ATP
2ADP
7
2(3-Phosphoglyceric acid)
8
2(2- Phosphoglyceric acid)
9
2(Phosphoenolpyruvic acid)
2ADP 2ATP
10
2(Pyruvic acid)
2 Pyruvic acids + 2 ATP + 4H
Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 PO4-3 →
4- Formation of Actyl-CoA:
2 Pyruvic acids + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 4H + 2CO2

5- The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) (Tricarboxylic acid

cycle) (TCA cycle):
* It takes place in matrix of mitochondria.
* It needs oxygen.
* Acetyl-CoA is metabolized to CO2 & hydrogen atoms.

* The released H atoms are oxidized releasing huge amount of

energy in the form of ATP.
 CoA
Steps of the formation of Actyl- 2H + CO2
CoA & Krebs cycle
Pyruvic acid (3C) Acetyl-CoA (2C)
CoA
CO2

H 2O
2HOxaloacetic acid (4C) Citric acid (6C)

Malic acid (4C)

H2 O Cis-aconitic acid (6C)

Fumaric acid (4C)

Isocitric acid (6C)
2H 2H
ADPH2O
Succinic acid (4C)
ATP
α-ketoglutaric acid (5C)
CO2 Oxalosuccinic acid (6C)
2H + CO2
 So, The citric acid cycle
2 Acetyl CoA + 2 ADP + 6 H2O → 4 CO2 + 16H + 2CoA + 2 ATP

:Summary of ATP formation during the breakdown of glucose

The entire oxidation of a glucose molecule can be summerized as
:follows
= 6 ATP i.e. 2H (NAD+)→3 ATP x 2 time
:a) Glycolysis
Glucose + 2 ADP + 2 PO4-3 → 2 Pyruvic acids + 2 ATP + 4H
= 6 ATP i.e. 2H (NAD )→3 ATP x 2 time
+
:b) Formation of acetyl-CoA
2 Pyruvic acids + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 4H + 2CO2
= 22 ATP {i.e. 6H (3 NAD+)→3x3 ATP x 2 time = 18 ATP
:c) The citric acid cycle + 2H (1 FAD) → 1 X2 ATP X 2 time = 4 ATP}
2 Acetyl CoA + 2 ADP + 6 H2O → 4 CO2 + 16H + 2CoA + 2 ATP

:Note: Oxidition of hydrogen ions

24 H + 6 CO2 → 12 H2O + 34 ATP
By adding all the ATP molecules formed as a result of the breakdown
of one glucose molecule to CO2 & H2O, we find that 38 ATP are
formed.
:Gluconeogenesis- 6
It is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as
.amino acids & glycerol
 Fat metabolism
Absorbed fats are stored as neutral fat in the fat depots as under the skin, in
the mesenteries, at the back of the abdomen, … etc.
* Fats are incorporated into the structure of cells.
* Fats are used as a source of energy where the fat is mobilized from the fat
depots and passes to the liver.
Liver lipase
Fat Glycerol + Fatty acids

β-Oxidation

Triose phosphate Acetyl-CoA

Added to that coming Join the citric acid

from glucose cycle

β-Oxidation
General structure of fatty acids:
δ γ β α
R - CH2 - CH2 ---------- CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - COOH
.Oxidation takes place in the carbon atom of the β- position
Mechanism of β-Oxidation

R CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH

Fatty acid
(CoA + ATP(
X
R CH2 CH2 CH2X CO S-CoA
Active fatty acid
Dehydrogenation
X X
R CH2 CH CH CO S-CoA + 2H
α,β-unsaturated fatty acid- CoA
Hydration
X X
R CH2 CHOH CH2 CO S-CoA
β-hydroxy fatty acid-CoA
Dehydrogenation
O
R CH2 C CH2 CO S-CoA + 2H
β-keto fatty acid-CoA
Cleavage at the
β-carbon atom
R CH2 CO S-CoA + CH3 CO S-CoA
Active fatty acid Acetyl CoA
(with 2 C less(
Repeated the previous Enters the citric
above processes acid cycle
 Protein metabolism
* Absorbed amino acids are incorporated into protein needed for growth,
repair of injured tissue, the formation of enzymes, some hormones, skin,
hair, nails …etc.
* May converted into other amino acids e.g. phenylalanine → tyrosine.
* Used as a precursors for purines, pyrimidines, creatine, thyroxine,
neurotransmitters … etc.
* Used as a source of energy.
Degradative pathways of most amino acids begins by deamination.
There are two major routes of deamination which are:
1- Transamination & 2- Oxidative deamination.
1- Transamination
COOH COOH
CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3
CH2 CH2 CHNH2
+ C O +
CHNH2 C O COOH
COOH
COOH COOH
Glutamic acid Pyruvic acid α- Ketoglutaric acid Αlanine
(Amino acid( (Keto acid( (Keto acid( (Amino acid(
 Notes: 1- Transamination does not result in net deamination.
2- It provides the basis for the formation of nonessential amino acids.
2- Oxidative deamination.
Dehydrogenation
CH3 CH COOH + NAD + CH3 C COOH + NADH

NH2 NH
Amino acid Coenzyme Imino acid
(Alanine(
+ H2O

* Join the citric acid cycle CH3 C COOH + NH3

Polymerization
* Acetyl CoA O
Fatty acids Keto acid
* Glucose (Pyruvic acid(

* Glycogen
* Used for the synthesis of new amino acids
Excreted as ammonium ions (NH4+( in the urine*
Converted into urea in the liver & excreted in the urine*
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