Modes of data Transmission

1
Parallel data transfer:
Many bits (usually 4 or 8) are sent at a time over many wires in the cable.

- Faster
- Limited to small distances
- Data skew: The difference in arrival time of bits transmitted at the
same time.

Serial data transfer:

Sending one bit at a time over one wire through the serial port is known as
serial transfer.

- Slower
- Cheaper 2
• To interface a microcomputer with serial data lines, the data must be
converted to and from serial form.
• A parallel-in-serial-out shift register and a serial-in-parallel-out shift
register can be used to conversion.

3
 Terms in serial data transmission

• Simplex
– Transmit data only in one direction
– Eg: radio station, earthquake sensor

• Half-duplex
– Communication can take place in either direction between two
systems, but can only occur in one direction at a time.
– Eg: walky-talky, push to talk (PTT) devices

• Full-duplex
– Full-duplex means that each system can send and receive data at the
same time.
– Eg: phone conversation.
4
Serial transmission
Asynchronous

-Each byte is encoded for transmission with Start and stop bits

- No need for sender and receiver synchronization

Synchronous
-Sender and receiver must synchronize
Done in hardware using phase locked loops (PLLs)

-Block of data can be sent

-More efficient and less overhead than asynchronous transmission

-Expensive
5
6
ALWAYS LOW ALWAYS HIGH

START D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 PARITY STOP STOP

ONE CHARAC TER

Fig. Bit format used for sending asynchronous serial data

7
8
Format of asynchronous transmission (One byte of async data)

9
Pin Configuration of the 8251 USART

10
Pin Number Description

27,28,1,2,5-8, D0-D7 -- Data Bus (8 bits)

3 RXD – Receiver data

4 GND - Ground

9 TXC - Transmitter Clock (Input - Active Low)

10 WR - Write data or control command

11 CS - Chip Select

12 C / D – Control or data is to be written or read

13 RD - Read data command

14 RXRDY - Read Register Ready

15 TXRDY - Transmitter Register Ready

11
16 SYNDET/BD - Refer Data Sheet

17 CTS - Clear To Send data (Active Low)

18 TXEMPTY - Transmitter Register Empty

19 TXD - Transmitter data (Output)

20 CLK - Clock

21 RESET - Reset

22 DSR - Data Set Ready

23 RTS - Request To Send data

24 DTR - Data Terminal Ready

25 RXC - Receiver Clock (Active Low)

26 Vcc --- + 5v Supply

12
Block diagram of the 8251 USART

13
D0 to D7 (l/O terminal)
This is bidirectional data bus which receives control words and transmits data from the
CPU and sends status words and received data to CPU.

RESET (Input terminal)

• The device waits for the writing of "mode instruction.“
• The min. reset width is six clock inputs during the operating status of CLK.

CLK (Input terminal)

• CLK signal is independent of RXC or TXC.
• The frequency of CLK must be greater than 30 times the RXC and TXC at
Synchronous mode and Asynchronous "x1" mode
• It must be greater than 5 times at Asynchronous "x16" and "x64" mode.

WR (Input terminal)
It receives a signal for writing transmit data and control words from the CPU
into the 8251.

RD (Input terminal)
14
It receives a signal for reading receive data and status words from the 8251.
C/D (Input terminal)
• It selects data or command words and status words when the 8251 is
accessed by the CPU.

CS (Input terminal)

TXD (output terminal)

• This is an output terminal for transmitting data from which serial-
converted data is sent out.

TXRDY (output terminal)

• This is an output terminal which indicates that the 8251is ready to accept
a transmitted data character.

• TxRDY=1 when holding buffer is empty 15

TXEMPTY (Output terminal)
This is an output terminal which indicates that the 8251 has transmitted all the characters
and had no data character.

TxEMPTY=1 when both buffers are empty.

In "synchronous mode," the terminal is at high level, if transmit data characters are no
longer remaining and sync characters are automatically transmitted.

TXC (Input terminal)

1. This is a clock input signal which determines the transfer speed of transmitted data.
2. In "synchronous mode," the baud rate will be the same as the frequency of TXC.
3. In "asynchronous mode", it is possible to select the baud rate factor by mode
instruction.
4. It can be 1, 1/16 or 1/64 the TXC. The falling edge of TXC sifts the serial data out
of the 8251.

RXD (input terminal)

This is a terminal which receives serial data.
16
RXRDY (Output terminal)
This is a terminal which indicates that the 8251 contains a character that is ready to READ
(by the CPU).
RxRDY=1 when a character has been shifted into the receiver buffer.

RXC (Input terminal)

This is a clock input signal which determines the transfer speed of received data.

SYNDET/BD (Input or output terminal)

1. This is a terminal whose function changes according to mode.

2. In "synchronous mode," it is at high level, if sync characters are received and

synchronized.

3. In "asynchronous mode," this is an output terminal which generates "high level” output
upon the detection of a "break" character if receiver data contains a "low-level" space
between the stop bits of two continuous characters.
17
DSR (Input terminal) : Data Set Ready

• This is an input signal for MODEM interface. The input status of the terminal can be
recognized by the CPU reading status words.

DTR (Output terminal) : Data Terminal Ready

• This is an output signal for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status of DTR
by a command.

CTS (Input terminal) : Clear To Send data

• This is an input signal for MODEM interface which is used for controlling a
transmit circuit. CTS=0 then terminal is ready to transmit data.
RTS (Output terminal): Request To Send data

• This is an output signal for MODEM interface. It is possible to set the status RTS by
a command.

18
The 8251 functional configuration is programmed by software. Operation between the
8251 and a CPU is executed by program control. Table below shows the operation
between a CPU and the device.

19
Interfacing 8251 with 8086

20
21
RS-232 Interface:

RS-232 stands for Recommend Standard number 232 and was given by
the EIA (Electronic Industry Association), Bell Laboratories in the year
1969.

The purpose of the standard was to provide an Interface between Data

Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data communication Equipment
(DCE) employing serial data transfer.

Data terminal equipment (DTE) is an end instrument that converts

user information into signals or reconverts received signals. A DTE
device communicates with DCE. The DTE/DCE classification was
introduced by IBM

The DTE device is the terminal (or a computer emulating a terminal),

and the DCE is a modem 22
• The RS-232 standard requires a modem to be
connected between the receiving and transmitting ends.

• This interface is useful for point-to-point

communication at slow speeds. For example, port
COM1 in a PC can be used for a mouse, port COM2
for a modem, etc.

• RS 232 was designed for communication of local

devices, and supports one transmitter and one receiver.

23
• RS232 on DB9 (9-pin D-type connector)

Male RS232 DB9

24
Signals
Commonly-used signals are:

• Transmitted Data (TxD)

– Data sent from DTE to DCE.

• Received Data (RxD)

– Data sent from DCE to DTE.

• Request To Send (RTS)

– Asserted (set to logic 0, positive voltage) by DTE to prepare DCE to receive data.

• Ready To Receive (RTR)

– Asserted by DTE to indicate to DCE that DTE is ready to receive data.

• Clear To Send (CTS)

– Asserted by DCE to acknowledge RTS and allow DTE to transmit

• Data Terminal Ready (DTR)

– Asserted by DTE to indicate that it is ready to be connected. If the DCE is a modem, this may "wake up" the modem, bringing it out of a
power saving mode.

• Data Set Ready (DSR)

– Asserted by DCE to indicate the DCE is powered on and is ready to receive commands or data for transmission from the DTE.

• Data Carrier Detect (DCD)

– Asserted by DCE when a connection has been established with remote equipment.

• Ring Indicator (RI)

– Asserted by DCE when it detects a ring signal from the telephone line 25
 Limitations of RS-232

RS-232 has some serious shortcomings as an electrical interface.

• Firstly, the interface pre-supposes a common ground between the DTE and
DCE.
-- This is a reasonable assumption where a short cable connects a DTE and DCE
in the same room, but with longer lines and connections between devices
that may be on different electrical busses, this may not be true. We have
seen some spectacular electrical events causes by "uncommon grounds".
• Secondly, a signal on a single line is impossible to screen effectively for noise.
-- By screening the entire cable one can reduce the influence of outside noise,
but internally generated noise remains a problem.
-- As the baud rate and line length increase, the effect of capacitance between
the cables introduces serious crosstalk until a point is reached where the data
itself is unreadable.
26
 TTL to RS 232C conversion

• USART (8251) is not directly compatible with RS-232 signal

levels.

• The TTL to RS232 Serial Adapter is used to connect TTL

(Transistor-Transistor Logic) level signals to an RS-232
interface.

• The TTL side is a 9-pin female connector, and the RS-232 side is
a 9-pin male connector.

• The TTL side has a voltage suppression network designed to

protect against ESD (Electro Static Discharge) and EFT
(Electrical Fast Transient). 27
28
TTL to RS232 Serial Adapter

Serial RS232 to USB 29

RS232C to TTL conversion

30
31
 High-Speed serial communication
• RS-422:
A high-speed system similar to RS-232 but with differential signaling

• RS-423:
A high-speed system similar to RS-422 but with unbalanced signaling

• RS-449 :
A functional and mechanical interface that used RS-422 and RS-423
signals - it never caught on like RS-232 and was withdrawn by the EIA

• RS-485:
A descendant of RS-422 that can be used as a bus in multidrop
configurations

• MIL-STD-188:
A system like RS-232 but with better impedance and rise time control
32
• TIA-574:
standardizes the 9-pin D-subminiature connector pinout for use with
EIA-232 electrical signaling, as originated on the IBM PC/AT

• SpaceWire
high-speed serial system designed for use on board spacecraft

33
 High-Speed serial communication standards
IEEE 1394 interface:

• The IEEE 1394 interface is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed
communications and isochronous real-time data transfer, frequently used by personal
computers, as well as in digital audio, digital video, automotive, and aeronautics
applications.
• The ISOCHRONOUS (ISOC) format for data transmission is a procedure or protocol
in which each information CHARACTER or BYTE is individually synchronized or
FRAMED by the use of Start and Stop Elements (bits).
• This interface is also known by the brand names of FireWire (Apple Inc.), i.LINK
(Sony), and Lynx (Texas Instruments).
• IEEE 1394 has been adopted as the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance
(HANA) standard connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component
communication and control.
• FireWire is also available in wireless, fiber optic, and coaxial versions using the
isochronous protocols

• Nearly all digital camcorders have included a four-circuit 1394 interface 34

 Standards and versions

FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394 -1995):

• A 6-circuit FireWire 400 alpha connector

• The original release of IEEE 1394-1995 specified what is now known as

FireWire 400.

• It can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s half-duplex
data rates (the actual transfer rates are 98.304, 196.608, and 393.216 Mbit/s,

• These different transfer modes are commonly referred to as S100, S200,

and S400.

• Cable length is limited to 4.5 metres (14.8 ft), although up to 16 cables can
be daisy chained using active repeaters.
35
The 6-circuit and 4-circuit alpha
FireWire 400 connectors
The alternative Ethernet-style
cabling used by 1394c

a pair of 6-circuit alpha connectors 4-circuit (left) and 6-circuit (right)

on the edge of an expansion card FireWire 400 alpha connectors 36
 FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b-2002)

• A 9-circuit beta connector.

• IEEE 1394b-2002 introduced FireWire 800

(Apple's name for the 9-circuit "S800
bilingual" version of the IEEE 1394b
standard)

• Data transfer rate is 786.432 Mbit/s full-

duplex via a new encoding scheme termed
beta mode.

• It is backwards compatible to the slower rates A 9-circuit

and 6-circuit alpha connectors of FireWire beta connector
400.
37
FireWire S1600 and S3200

• In December 2007, the 1394 Trade Association

announced that products will be available before the end
of 2008 using the S1600 and S3200 modes that, for the
most part, had already been defined in 1394b and was
further clarified in IEEE Std. 1394-2008.

• The 1.6 Gbit/s and 3.2 Gbit/s devices use the same 9-
circuit beta connectors as the existing FireWire 800 and
will be fully compatible with existing S400 and S800
devices.

• It will compete with the forthcoming USB

38
FireWire S800T (IEEE 1394c-2006)

• IEEE 1394c-2006 was published on June 8 2007.

• It provided a major technical improvement, namely new port

specification that provides 800 Mbit/s over the same RJ45
connectors with IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) devices.

• Though the potential for a combined Ethernet and FireWire

RJ45 port is intriguing, as of November 2008, there are no
products or chipsets which include this capability.

39
Comparison to USB

• Firewire (which started development in 1986) had implementations

predating USB.
• However USB reached industry standardization (1994) before the IEEE-
1394-1995 specification was released (1995).
• At this time USB 1.0 had a signaling speed of 12 and 1.5 Mbit/s (compared
to 400 Mbit/s of IEEE-1394a (FireWire 400)) but cheaper
implementations. USB 2.0 with (480 Mbit/s) signal rate was made available
in computers early 2001.
• FireWire 800 is substantially faster than Hi-Speed USB, both in theory
and in practice.

Alternative uses for IEEE 1394

1. Aircraft

2. Automobiles
40
 USB-Universal Serial Bus
• USB is intended to replace many varieties of serial and parallel
ports.
• USB can connect computer peripherals such as
– mice
– keyboards
– PDAs
– gamepads
– joysticks
– scanners
– digital cameras
– printers
– personal media players
– flash drives
– external hard drives.

• As of 2008, there are about 2 billion USB devices sold per year,
and about 6 billion total sold to date.
41
• The design of USB is standardized by the USB Implementers Forum
(USB-IF), an industry standards body incorporating leading
companies from the computer and electronics industries.
• Year created: January 1996
• Created by: Intel, Compaq, Microsoft, Digital Equipment
Corporation, IBM, Northern Telecom

A USB Series “A” plug, the most 42

common USB plug
• USB communication takes the form of packets.

• The original USB 1.0 specification had a data transfer

rate of 12 Mbit/s.

• The USB 2.0 specification was released in April 2000

and was standardized by the USB-IF at the end of
2001. Data transfer rate of 480 Mbit/s

• The USB 3.0 specification was released on November

12, 2008 by the USB 3.0 Promoter Group. It's
maximum transfer rate is up to 10 times faster than
the USB 2.0 release. It has been dubbed the Super
Speed USB.
43
Different types of USB connectors
from left to right

• 8-pin AGOX USB extension cord

• Mini-B plug
• Type B plug
• Type A receptacle
44
• Type A plug
• A USB system has an asymmetric design, consisting of a host, a
multitude of downstream USB ports, and multiple peripheral devices
connected in a tiered-star topology.

• Additional USB hubs may be included in the tiers, allowing branching

into a tree structure with up to five tier levels.

• A USB host may have multiple host controllers and each host
controller may provide one or more USB ports.
•
• Up to 127 devices, including the hub devices, may be connected to a
single host controller.

• USB devices are linked in series through hubs. A physical USB device
may consist of several logical sub-devices that are referred to as device
functions. 45
• A single device may provide several functions, for
example, a webcam (video device function) with a built-in
microphone (audio device function). Such a device is
called a compound device in which each logical device is
assigned a distinctive address by the host and all logical
devices are connected to a built-in hub to which the
physical USB wire is connected.

• USB device communication is based on pipes (logical

channels).

• Pipes are connections from the host controller to a logical

entity on the device named an endpoint.

• USB endpoints actually reside on the connected device: the

channels to the host are referred to as pipes. 46
 USB mass-storage
• USB implements connections to storage devices using a
set of standards called the USB mass storage device
class (referred to as MSC or UMS).

• This was initially intended for traditional magnetic and

optical drives, but has been extended to support a wide
variety of devices, particularly flash drives.

• This generality is because many systems can be

controlled with the familiar idiom of file manipulation
within directories (the process of making a novel device
look like a familiar device is also known as extension).

• Though most newer computers are capable of booting

off USB mass storage devices.

• USB interface port: the drive appears to the user much

like an internal drive.
47