CHAPTER 4

REPRODUCTION
AND
GROWTH
GAMETE FORMATION
Types of reproduction
a) Sexual
reproduction

b) Asexual
reproduction

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. involving sex cells
or gamete

3. Involve two
parents

5. Produce offspring that
are genetically different
from their parents
4. New individuals inherit
genes from both parents
through the fusion of egg
and sperm.

2. Gamete are formed
by meiotic division
6. Ensure the survival of
the species if the
environment condition
undergo changes constantly
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
1. The
production of
new individuals
without
involving sex
cells.
2. The process
relies entirely on
mitotic division
ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
3. Involves only
one individual
(single parent)
7. Is an
advantage if the
environment is
stable.
6. Ensure that the
adaptation of the parent
for survival are passed
down unchanged to the
offspring.

5. Produces
offspring that are
genetically
identical to the
parent
4. New
individual get
their genes from
one parent
without the
fusion of an egg
and sperm
The necessity for organisms
to reproduce
Organisms can not live forever. They will
eventually die. Therefore need to produce
new individual to replace those that die.
The
continuation of
the species
The passing
down of an
individuals
genes to
future
generation
Reproduction is
necessity to ensure:

MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

(spermatogenesis)

The formation
of male gamete
or sperm takes
place in the
testes
Each testis
made up of
many small
seminiferous
tubule.
Two types of cells, the
germinal epithelial cells
and sertoli cells, line the
seminiferous tubules
Germinal epithelial cells of a seminiferous
tubule divide by mitosis to produce diploid
spermatogonia

The spermatogonia grow to become
primary spermatocytes which are large
diploid sells.

Each primary spermatocytes undergoes
meiosis I to form two haploid secondary
spermatocytes

Each secondary spermatocytes divides
again during meiosis II to produce
spermatids. This means a total of four
spermatids are formed for every primary
spermatocytes

The spermatids obtain nourishment from
nearby nutritive cells (sertoli cells), develop
tails and mature into sperms
(spermatozoa) through cell differentiation

FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Begins in the
developing ovaries of
a female fetus
before birth.
Germinal epithelial cells
near the surface of an
ovary multiply by mitosis
to form oogonia
Oogonia grow to form
primary oocytes and
surrounded by a layer of
follicle cells and secrete
sex hormones to make up
primary follicle.
All primary oocytes
undergo meiosis but stop
at prophase I of meiosis
I
The diploid primary
oocyte complete meiosis
Ito form haploid cells
which are not equal in
size
The released or the secondary oocyte from the
ovary is known as ovulation and it is take place in
ovaries every 28 days
Once a Graafian follicle has released a secondary
oocyte, it develops into a yellowish mass of cells
called the corpus luteum.

THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN
HUMAN MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Only occur in puberty female. Prepare the body for the
possibility of pregnancy
The activities of the menstrual cycle are closely
associate with ovulation and takes place in
endometrium of the uterus within 28 days.
Hormones involved in menstrual
cycle
b) The hormones that control
the changes in the uterus are
oestrogen and progesterone.
a) The hormones that control
the changes in the ovaries are
FSH and LH
thickening
of the
endometriu
m
stimulates
the repair
and growth
of the
uterine
lining
prepares
the
endometriu
m for the
implantatio
n of a
fertilised
ovum.


FSH LH OESTROGEN PROGESTERONE
stimulates
the
developme
nt of the
follicle in
the ovary

stimulates
the
developme
nt of the
follicles
stimulates the
development
of the follicle
in the ovary
stimulates the
development
of the follicles
stimulates
the
developme
nt of the
follicles



Maintain
the
endometri
um in
readiness
for the
implantati
on of the
blastosyst


No one know for
sure what causes
PMS or why some
months are worse
than others, but
PMS is often linked
to the changes in
hormone levels that
happen during a
woman's menstrual
cycle. PMS is not
caused by stress or
psychological
problems, although
these may make the
symptoms worse.

Early development of a zygote in human

Eight Week Fetus

All the major organs of your baby have
formed now though they are not fully
developed yet. Eyes and ears are
growing now. The heart is beating
strongly. When you have an ultrasound
during this time, you can see the fetal
heart pulsating.

Twelve Week Fetus

Your baby is now about 6.5 cm long and
weighs about 18 grams. His head is
becoming more rounded and the face is
completely formed. Toes and fingers are
formed and nails are beginning to grow.
The baby is moving it's limps but you
can not feel this movements yet.

Sixteen Week Fetus

Your baby is now about 16 cm long and weighs 35
grams. During a scan, you can see the baby's
head and body and you may see the baby moving.
It is exercising all his limbs, kicking and moving
about. This is the earliest stage at which you
may feel the baby moving. It feels like there is a
butterfly in your belly. However, do not worry if
you don't feel anything yet. If this is your first
baby, you are likely to feel the first movements
a bit later.

Twenty Week Fetus

The baby is still swimming around in a large
amount of amniotic fluid. He is growing rapidly,
both in length and weight and is now 25 cm long,
half as long as it will be at delivery and weighs
about 340 grams. It makes some very active
movements that can be felt by you. You will
probably notice that there are times when your
baby seems to be asleep and other times when
he's moving about a lot.

Twenty Four Week Fetus
Your baby is about 32 cm long now and
weighs 500 grams. You can feel
different parts of the baby's body
through your abdominal wall. Your
uterine muscle is stretching and you may
feel a pain sometimes at the side of
your tummy. The top of your uterus
reaches to just above your navel.

Thirty Week Fetus
Your baby's head is now in proportion
with the rest of his body. You may feel
pressure on your diaphragm, stomach
and intestines. Your baby's weight is
now about 1700 grams or three pounds
eleven ounces and measures about 40
cm or 15.8 inches in length.

Thirty Six Week Fetus

Your baby is almost fully mature. Any time now
he may descend into your pelvis. Once the baby
has engaged you may find that your breathing
becomes easier and the pressure on your
diaphragm is less. Your baby's skin is smooth
now and his body has plumped out. When the
baby is awake his eyes are open and he can
differentiate between light and dark. Your baby
is now about 50 cm long and weighs anywhere
from 2500 to 4500 grams.

Thirty Seven Week Baby to Forty Two Week
Baby

Any day now your labor may start. Do not worry
if your baby is not born exactly on his due
date. The due date is only a statistic means.
Only 5 % of the babies are born exactly on
their due dates. The long awaited day is near
and soon you will be holding your baby in your
arms. Your baby has lost his lanugos hair
although you may still find some at his back and
on his forehead. Your baby's eyes will be blue
at birth but this can change in the weeks to
come. Some babies arrive a bit earlier, others a
bit later, but they do arrive! So, much luck and
happiness with the new baby in your life!
Contribution of science and technology
to human reproduction
Reproduction technology
Artificial insemination (AI) is a means
of helping couples to have children if
they are unable to conceive through
sexual intercourse. Artificial
insemination refers to a range of
techniques in which the man's sperm is
put into the woman's genital tract
artificially.
In IVF, eggs are
gathered from the
woman's ovaries and
mixed with the man's
sperm in a dish in the
laboratory. "In vitro"
is a Latin term literally
meaning "in glass". It
refers to the glass
container in the
laboratory where
fertilisation takes
place - hence the term
"test tube baby",
although in reality it is
usually a culture dish.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)
SYPHILIS GONORRHEA
ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROM (AIDS)
Concept of sexual reproduction
in flowering plants
Sexual reproduction in
flowering plants
(angiosperms) takes
place in the distinctive
reproduction structure
called the flower.
There are 4 flower
parts, namely sepals,
petals, stamens and
carpel.


structure of flower

carpel
Pistil / carpel
(female
reproductive
organ)
(male
reproductive
organ)
Anther
Filament
Longitudinal
section of a
flower
The Structure and
Functions of Flowers

The Female
Reproductive Organ:
The Carpel

Development of pollen
Pollen is produce in the anther which
consist of four pollen sacs.
In each pollen sacs, are hundred of
pollen mother cells or microsporocyte

Male Gametes

Formation of pollen grain

The pollen mother cells (microsporocyte)
divide by meiosis to produce 4 haploid cells
called tetrad.
As the anther grows, each of these cells goes
through two meiotic divisions, forming a
tetrad. These cells are called microspores
Each one of these microspores eventually
becomes a pollen grain.

The tube cell will
build the pollen
tube that grows
from the stigma
through the style
to the ovule
The generative
cell will divide
mitotically to
produce two
sperm cells

Development of the Embryo Sac

Development of the Embryo Sac
The green structure at the top of the diagram
is the ovule. The integuments are the 2 walls
of the ovule. There is a small opening in the
walls called a micropyle.
The embryo sac, also known as the megaspore,
divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid cells.
Three of these cells degenerate and one
remains.
Eight haploid nuclei are now present. Within
the swollen megaspore cell six haploid cells
and two polar nuclei are formed
The Carpel With a Mature Embryo Sac will
appear as shown below:

Pollination

When the pollen tube reaches the
ovule, there is a double fertilisation by
the sperm nuclei
a) Fertilisation of the egg cell by a sperm
cell yields the zygote.
b) Fertilisation of the (n+n) cell produces
the triploid endosperm, which become
the seeds nutritive tissue

Double fertilisation in flowering plants

a) The sepals, petals, style and stigma
degenerate and usually fall off
b) The whole ovary changes into fruit; the
ovary wall ripens and forms the
pericarp of the fruit
c) Ovule develops into seed; contains the
zygote which develops into a matured
embryo with cotyledons or seed
leaves. The integuments of the ovule
harden into seed coat
Growth in multicellular organism
The apical meristem produces the three
primary meristems, protoderm,
procambium, and ground meristem, which
develop into dermal tissues, vascular
tissues, and ground tissues respectively.
The growth curve

Growth may be evaluated by
measurements of mass, length or height,
surface area or volume


SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE IN PINTO BEAN LEAVES
Note that, as in bacterial growth, growth goes through an initial lag
phase, followed by a phase of logarithmic growth, followed by a
stationary phase
The first derivative of the curve above, simply indicating that the growth rate
reaches a maximum, and then tapers off.