LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION

Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lectures by
Erin Barley
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
Nervous Systems

Chapter 49
Overview: Command and Control Center
The human brain contains about 100 billion
neurons, organized into circuits more complex
than the most powerful supercomputers
A recent advance in brain exploration involves a
method for expressing combinations of colored
proteins in brain cells, a technique called
brainbow
This may allow researchers to develop detailed
maps of information transfer between regions of
the brain
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.1
Each single-celled organism can respond to
stimuli in its environment
Animals are multicellular and most groups
respond to stimuli using systems of neurons
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 49.1: Nervous systems consist of
circuits of neurons and supporting cells
The simplest animals with nervous systems, the
cnidarians, have neurons arranged in nerve nets
A nerve net is a series of interconnected nerve
cells
More complex animals have nerves
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nerves are bundles that consist of the axons of
multiple nerve cells
Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm
connected by radial nerves to a central nerve
ring
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.2
Nerve net
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
(b) Sea star
(echinoderm)
Eyespot
Brain
Nerve
cords
Transverse
nerve
Brain
Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
(c) Planarian
(flatworm)
(d) Leech (annelid)
(h) Salamander
(vertebrate)
(e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton (mollusc) (g) Squid (mollusc)
Brain
Brain
Brain
Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
Anterior
nerve ring
Longitudinal
nerve cords
Ganglia
Ganglia
Spinal
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Sensory
ganglia
Figure 49.2a
Nerve net
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
(b) Sea star (echinoderm)
Bilaterally symmetrical animals exhibit
cephalization, the clustering of sensory organs
at the front end of the body
Relatively simple cephalized animals, such as
flatworms, have a central nervous system (CNS)
The CNS consists of a brain and longitudinal
nerve cords

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.2b
Eyespot
Brain
Nerve
cords
Transverse
nerve
Brain
Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
(c) Planarian (flatworm) (d) Leech (annelid)
Annelids and arthropods have segmentally
arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.2c
(e) Insect (arthropod) (f) Chiton (mollusc)
Brain
Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
Anterior
nerve ring
Longitudinal
nerve cords
Ganglia
Nervous system organization usually correlates
with lifestyle
Sessile molluscs (for example, clams and
chitons) have simple systems, whereas more
complex molluscs (for example, octopuses and
squids) have more sophisticated systems

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.2d
(h) Salamander (vertebrate) (g) Squid (mollusc)
Brain
Brain
Ganglia
Spinal
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Sensory
ganglia
In vertebrates
The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal
cord
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is
composed of nerves and ganglia
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous
System
The spinal cord conveys information from and
to the brain
The spinal cord also produces reflexes
independently of the brain
A reflex is the bodys automatic response to a
stimulus
For example, a doctor uses a mallet to trigger
a knee-jerk reflex
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Quadriceps
muscle
Cell body of
sensory neuron in
dorsal root
ganglion
Gray
matter
White
matter
Hamstring
muscle
Spinal cord
(cross section)
Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron
Figure 49.3
Invertebrates usually have a ventral nerve cord
while vertebrates have a dorsal spinal cord
The spinal cord and brain develop from the
embryonic nerve cord
The nerve cord gives rise to the central canal
and ventricles of the brain
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.4
Central nervous
system (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Cranial nerves
Ganglia outside
CNS
Spinal nerves
Figure 49.5
Gray matter
White
matter
Ventricles
The central canal of the spinal cord and the
ventricles of the brain are hollow and filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
The cerebrospinal fluid is filtered from blood and
functions to cushion the brain and spinal cord as
well as to provide nutrients and remove wastes

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The brain and spinal cord contain
Gray matter, which consists of neuron cell
bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons
White matter, which consists of bundles of
myelinated axons

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Glia
Glia have numerous functions to nourish,
support, and regulate neurons
Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which
newly formed neurons migrate
Astrocytes induce cells lining capillaries in the
CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a
blood-brain barrier and restricting the entry of
most substances into the brain
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.6
CNS PNS
VENTRICLE
Cilia
Neuron
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocyte
Capillary Ependymal cell
LM
5
0

m

Schwann cell
Microglial cell
Figure 49.6a
CNS PNS
VENTRICLE
Cilia
Neuron
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocyte
Capillary Ependymal cell
Schwann cell
Microglial cell
Figure 49.6b
LM 5
0

m

The Peripheral Nervous System
The PNS transmits information to and from the
CNS and regulates movement and the internal
environment
In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information
to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit
information away from the CNS
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The PNS has two efferent components: the
motor system and the autonomic nervous system
The motor system carries signals to skeletal
muscles and is voluntary
The autonomic nervous system regulates
smooth and cardiac muscles and is generally
involuntary
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Efferent neurons
Afferent neurons
Central Nervous
System
(information processing)
Peripheral Nervous
System
Sensory
receptors
Internal
and external
stimuli
Autonomic
nervous system
Motor
system
Control of
skeletal muscle
Sympathetic
division
Parasympathetic
division
Enteric
division
Control of smooth muscles,
cardiac muscles, glands
Figure 49.7
The autonomic nervous system has
sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric
divisions
The sympathetic division regulates arousal
and energy generation (fight-or-flight
response)
The parasympathetic division has
antagonistic effects on target organs and
promotes calming and a return to rest and
digest functions
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The enteric division controls activity of the
digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Parasympathetic division
Action on target organs:
Constricts pupil
of eye
Stimulates salivary
gland secretion
Constricts
bronchi in lungs
Slows heart
Stimulates activity
of stomach and
intestines
Stimulates activity
of pancreas
Stimulates
gallbladder
Promotes emptying
of bladder
Promotes erection
of genitalia
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Synapse
Sacral
Sympathetic
ganglia
Sympathetic division
Action on target organs:
Dilates pupil of eye
Accelerates heart
Inhibits salivary
gland secretion
Relaxes bronchi
in lungs
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Inhibits activity
of pancreas
Stimulates glucose
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates
adrenal medulla
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
Promotes ejaculation
and vaginal contractions
Figure 49.8
Figure 49.8a
Parasympathetic division
Action on target organs:
Constricts pupil
of eye
Stimulates salivary
gland secretion
Constricts
bronchi in lungs
Slows heart
Stimulates activity
of stomach and
intestines
Stimulates activity
of pancreas
Stimulates
gallbladder
Cervical
Sympathetic
ganglia
Sympathetic division
Action on target organs:
Dilates pupil of eye
Inhibits salivary
gland secretion
Parasympathetic division
Promotes emptying
of bladder
Promotes erection
of genitalia
Thoracic
Lumbar
Synapse
Sacral
Sympathetic division
Accelerates heart
Relaxes bronchi
in lungs
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Inhibits activity
of pancreas
Stimulates glucose
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Stimulates
adrenal medulla
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
Promotes ejaculation
and vaginal contractions
Figure 49.8b
Concept 49.2: The vertebrate brain is
regionally specialized
Specific brain structures are particularly
specialized for diverse functions
These structures arise during embryonic
development


2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.9a
Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white
matter, basal nuclei)
Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus,
epithalamus)
Midbrain (part of brainstem)
Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)
Midbrain
Forebrain
Hindbrain
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal
cord
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Child Embryo at 5 weeks Embryo at 1 month
Figure 49.9b
Figure 49.9ba
Midbrain
Forebrain
Hindbrain
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal
cord
Embryo at 5 weeks Embryo at 1 month
Figure 49.9bb
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
Child
Figure 49.9c
Adult brain viewed from the rear
Cerebellum
Basal nuclei
Cerebrum
Left cerebral
hemisphere
Right cerebral
hemisphere
Cerebral cortex
Corpus callosum
Figure 49.9d
Diencephalon
Thalamus
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Spinal cord
Brainstem
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla
oblongata
Arousal and Sleep
The brainstem and cerebrum control arousal
and sleep
The core of the brainstem has a diffuse network
of neurons called the reticular formation
This regulates the amount and type of
information that reaches the cerebral cortex
and affects alertness
The hormone melatonin is released by the
pineal gland and plays a role in bird and
mammal sleep cycles
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.10
Eye
Reticular formation
Input from touch,
pain, and temperature
receptors
Input from nerves
of ears
Sleep is essential and may play a role in the
consolidation of learning and memory
Dolphins sleep with one brain hemisphere at a
time and are therefore able to swim while
asleep
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.11
Low-frequency waves characteristic of sleep
High-frequency waves characteristic of wakefulness
Key
Location Time: 0 hours Time: 1 hour
Left
hemisphere
Right
hemisphere
Biological Clock Regulation
Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples
of circadian rhythms, daily cycles of biological
activity
Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a
biological clock, molecular mechanism that
directs periodic gene expression
Biological clocks are typically synchronized to
light and dark cycles
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated
by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus
called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing
the biological clock
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.12
Wild-type hamster
Wild-type hamster with
SCN from hamster
hamster
hamster with SCN
from wild-type hamster
RESULTS
Before
procedures
After surgery
and transplant
C
i
r
c
a
d
i
a
n

c
y
c
l
e

p
e
r
i
o
d

(
h
o
u
r
s
)

24
23
22
21
20
19
Emotions
Generation and experience of emotions involve
many brain structures including the amygdala,
hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus
These structures are grouped as the limbic
system
The limbic system also functions in motivation,
olfaction, behavior, and memory
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.13
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Olfactory
bulb
Amygdala Hippocampus
Generation and experience of emotion also
require interaction between the limbic system
and sensory areas of the cerebrum
The structure most important to the storage of
emotion in the memory is the amygdala, a mass
of nuclei near the base of the cerebrum
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.14
Nucleus accumbens Amygdala
Happy music Sad music
Figure 49.14a
Nucleus accumbens
Happy music
Figure 49.14b
Amygdala
Sad music
Concept 49.3: The cerebral cortex controls
voluntary movement and cognitive functions
The cerebrum, the largest structure in the
human brain, is essential for awareness,
language, cognition, memory, and
consciousness
Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal,
occipital, and parietal), are landmarks for
particular functions
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.15
Motor cortex
(control of
skeletal muscles)
Frontal lobe
Prefrontal cortex
(decision making,
planning)
Brocas area
(forming speech)
Temporal lobe
Auditory cortex (hearing)
Wernickes area
(comprehending language)
Somatosensory cortex
(sense of touch)
Parietal lobe
Sensory association
cortex (integration of
sensory information)
Visual association
cortex (combining
images and object
recognition)
Occipital lobe
Cerebellum
Visual cortex
(processing visual
stimuli and pattern
recognition)
Language and Speech
Studies of brain activity have mapped areas
responsible for language and speech
Brocas area in the frontal lobe is active when
speech is generated
Wernickes area in the temporal lobe is active
when speech is heard
These areas belong to a larger network of
regions involved in language
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.16
Hearing
words
Speaking
words
Seeing
words
Generating
words
Max
Min
Lateralization of Cortical Function
The two hemispheres make distinct contributions
to brain function
The left hemisphere is more adept at language,
math, logic, and processing of serial sequences
The right hemisphere is stronger at pattern
recognition, nonverbal thinking, and emotional
processing
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The differences in hemisphere function are
called lateralization
Lateralization is partly linked to handedness
The two hemispheres work together by
communicating through the fibers of the corpus
callosum
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Information Processing
The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory
organs and somatosensory receptors
Somatosensory receptors provide information
about touch, pain, pressure, temperature, and
the position of muscles and limbs
The thalamus directs different types of input to
distinct locations

2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Adjacent areas process features in the sensory
input and integrate information from different
sensory areas
Integrated sensory information passes to the
prefrontal cortex, which helps plan actions and
movements
In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex,
neurons are arranged according to the part of
the body that generates input or receives
commands
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.17
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Primary
motor cortex
Primary
somatosensory
cortex
Genitalia
Toes
Abdominal
organs
Tongue
Jaw
H
i
p

K
n
e
e

Tongue
Pharynx
H
e
a
d

N
e
c
k

T
r
u
n
k

H
i
p

L
e
g

Figure 49.17a
Primary
motor cortex
Toes
Tongue
Jaw
H
i
p

K
n
e
e

Figure 49.17b
Primary
somatosensory
cortex
Genitalia
Abdominal
organs
Tongue
Pharynx
H
e
a
d

N
e
c
k

T
r
u
n
k

H
i
p

L
e
g

Frontal Lobe Function
Frontal lobe damage may impair decision
making and emotional responses but leave
intellect and memory intact
The frontal lobes have a substantial effect on
executive functions
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.UN01
Evolution of Cognition in Vertebrates
Previous ideas that a highly convoluted
neocortex is required for advanced cognition
may be incorrect
The anatomical basis for sophisticated
information processing in birds (without a highly
convoluted neocortex) appears to be the
clustering of nuclei in the top or outer portion of
the brain (pallium)
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Human brain
Avian brain
Thalamus
Midbrain
Hindbrain Cerebellum
Avian brain
to scale
Thalamus
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Cerebellum
Cerebrum (including
cerebral cortex)
Cerebrum
(including pallium)
Figure 49.18
Concept 49.4 Changes in synaptic
connections underlie memory and learning
Two processes dominate embryonic
development of the nervous system
Neurons compete for growth-supporting factors
in order to survive
Only half the synapses that form during embryo
development survive into adulthood
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Neural Plasticity
Neural plasticity describes the ability of the
nervous system to be modified after birth
Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at
a synapse
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.19
N
2

N
1

N
2

N
1

(a) Synapses are strengthened or weakened in response to
activity.
(b) If two synapses are often active at the same time, the
strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at
both synapses.
Memory and Learning
The formation of memories is an example of
neural plasticity
Short-term memory is accessed via the
hippocampus
The hippocampus also plays a role in forming
long-term memory, which is stored in the
cerebral cortex
Some consolidation of memory is thought to
occur during sleep
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Long-Term Potentiation
In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called
long-term potentiation (LTP) involves an
increase in the strength of synaptic transmission
LTP involves glutamate receptors
If the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are
stimulated at the same time, the set of receptors
present on the postsynaptic membranes
changes
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.20
PRESYNAPTIC
NEURON
Glutamate
Mg
2

Ca
2

Na

NMDA
receptor
(closed)
Stored
AMPA
receptor
NMDA receptor (open)
POSTSYNAPTIC
NEURON
(a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP)
(b) Establishing LTP
(c) Synapse exhibiting LTP
Depolarization
Action
potential
2
1
3
1
2
3
4
Figure 49.20a
PRESYNAPTIC
NEURON
Glutamate
Mg
2

Ca
2

Na

NMDA
receptor
(closed)
Stored
AMPA
receptor
NMDA receptor (open)
POSTSYNAPTIC
NEURON
(a) Synapse prior to long-term potentiation (LTP)
Figure 49.20b
(b) Establishing LTP
1
2
3
AMPA
receptor
NMDA receptor
Mg
2

Ca
2

Na

Figure 49.20c
(c) Synapse exhibiting LTP
Depolarization
Action
potential
AMPA
receptor
NMDA receptor
1
3
4
2
Stem Cells in the Brain
The adult human brain contains neural stem
cells
In mice, stem cells in the brain can give rise to
neurons that mature and become incorporated
into the adult nervous system
Such neurons play an essential role in learning
and memory
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.21
Concept 49.5: Nervous system disorders can
be explained in molecular terms
Disorders of the nervous system include
schizophrenia, depression, drug addiction,
Alzheimers disease, and Parkinsons disease
Genetic and environmental factors contribute to
diseases of the nervous system
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.22
Genes shared with relatives of
person with schizophrenia
12.5% (3rd-degree relative)
25% (2nd-degree relative)
50% (1st-degree relative)
100%
50
40
30
20
10
0
Relationship to person with schizophrenia
R
i
s
k

o
f

d
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
n
g

s
c
h
i
z
o
p
h
r
e
n
i
a

(
%
)

I
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
,

g
e
n
e
r
a
l

p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

F
i
r
s
t

c
o
u
s
i
n

U
n
c
l
e
/
a
u
n
t

N
e
p
h
e
w
/

n
i
e
c
e

F
r
a
t
e
r
n
a
l

t
w
i
n

I
d
e
n
t
i
c
a
l

t
w
i
n

G
r
a
n
d
c
h
i
l
d

H
a
l
f

s
i
b
l
i
n
g

P
a
r
e
n
t

F
u
l
l

s
i
b
l
i
n
g

C
h
i
l
d

Schizophrenia
About 1% of the worlds population suffers from
schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is characterized by hallucinations,
delusions, and other symptoms
Available treatments focus on brain pathways
that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness are
known: major depressive disorder and bipolar
disorder
In major depressive disorder, patients have a
persistent lack of interest or pleasure in most
activities
Bipolar disorder is characterized by manic
(high-mood) and depressive (low-mood) phases
Treatments for these types of depression include
drugs such as Prozac
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Drug Addiction and the Brains Reward
System
The brains reward system rewards motivation
with pleasure
Some drugs are addictive because they
increase activity of the brains reward system
These drugs include cocaine, amphetamine,
heroin, alcohol, and tobacco
Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive
consumption and an inability to control intake
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Addictive drugs enhance the activity of the
dopamine pathway
Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in
the reward circuitry that cause craving for the
drug
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.23
Nicotine
stimulates
dopamine-
releasing
VTA neuron.
Inhibitory neuron
Dopamine-
releasing
VTA neuron
Cerebral
neuron of
reward
pathway
Opium and heroin
decrease activity
of inhibitory
neuron.
Cocaine and
amphetamines
block removal
of dopamine
from synaptic
cleft.
Reward
system
response
Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease is a mental deterioration
characterized by confusion and memory loss
Alzheimers disease is caused by the formation
of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques in
the brain
There is no cure for this disease though some
drugs are effective at relieving symptoms
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.24
Amyloid plaque Neurofibrillary tangle
20 m
Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder
caused by death of dopamine-secreting
neurons in the midbrain
It is characterized by muscle tremors, flexed
posture, and a shuffling gait
There is no cure, although drugs and various
other approaches are used to manage
symptoms
2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 49.UN02
Nerve net
Hydra (cnidarian)
Salamander (vertebrate)
Sensory
ganglia
Spinal
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Brain
Figure 49.UN03
Capillary Neuron Microglial cell
Schwann
cells
Oligodendrocyte
Astrocyte
PNS CNS
Cilia
VENTRICLE
Ependy-
mal
cell
Figure 49.UN04
Spinal
cord
Cerebral
cortex
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
Pons
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain
Cerebrum
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Figure 49.UN05