Compendium Review

Major Topic Two: Nutrition

Table of Contents
• The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders
• The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestive_tract

 Picture from

The Digestive Tract

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Digestive_tract#Histology

The digestive tract, known as the gastrointestinal tract, has multiple digestive process which aid in
the normal function of the system, starting from the mouth and ending at the anus.

• Ingestion of foods through our mouth

• Digestion of foods in our mouth
(mechanically) and in parts of our GI
tract (chemically)
• Movement of contents through our
tract
• Absorption of nutrients
• Elimination of indigestible waste

The wall of the GI tract has four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and
serosa. Mucosa is the innermost layer neighboring the lumen (inner space) which
protects the wall from enzymes by producing mucous. Submucosa is the second layer
which includes vessels (blood and lymphatic) and nerves. Muscularis externa is the
third layer which is comprised of two smooth muscle layers (circular and longitudinal)
that are responsible for movement control of digested food. Lastly, the serosa consists
of the adventitia (layers of epithelium tissue) that faces the mesentery (double layer of
peritoneum [lining of abdominal cavity]) which are covered by connective tissue to
form the outer layer. This layer is responsible for secreting serous fluids.
 • The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Picture from
http://www.popartuk.com/film/shark-
tale/fish-in-sharks-mouth-fp1422-
poster.asp
 Pictures from

The Mouth and Stomach http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tooth &

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary_glands
& Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page
The first part of the GI tract which is responsible for ingestion and digestion both 146

mechanically and chemically is the mouth. The roof of the mouth has a hard palate (anterior)
which contains bones and a soft palate (posterior) which is made of muscle. At the back of
the mouth is the uvula (end of soft palate) and lymphatic tissue known as tonsils. There are
three sets of salivary glands which send saliva (watery mucous substance) to the mouth.
Saliva contains an enzyme (salivary amylase) which aid in digesting starch.

Salivary Glands
2. Parotid Gland: largest gland
which facilitates chewing
and swallowing
Teeth are responsible for the mechanically break up of
3. Submandibular Gland: ingested food. Each tooth has a crown consisting of a
accounts for about ¾ hard enamel layer covering a bonelike layer known as
salivary volume
dentin. The dentin covers the pulp which houses the
4. Sublingual Gland: contains nerves. Under the crown is the root section which houses
both mucous and serous for the root canal and nerves.
 The Mouth and Stomach
The tongue aids in mechanical digestion by moving food around, forming a bolus (mass of
chewed food), and pushing it towards the pharynx. The tongue is made of skeletal muscle
and contains our taste buds. The pharynx is the department above the esophagus, larynx,
and trachea where food and air pass through. The trachea is known as the windpipe and is in
front of the esophagus which is the tube that takes food to our stomachs. When we swallow
food, a flap called the epiglottis blocks the chewed food from entering in the glottis (opening
to larynx [voice box]).

Pictures from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate_trac
hea & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharynx

Peristalsis is the contraction of the food bolus in the esophagus. The food is pushed down to
the stomach where it passes through the lower esophageal sphincter, or a valve muscle
which opens to allow food in and closes to prevent acidic contents from leaving. If stomach
contents escape into the esophagus, it can lead to a burning sensation known as heartburn.
 The Mouth and Stomach
The stomach is a lima bean shaped organ
responsible for breaking down, mixing
and sending food to the small intestines.
The stomach is connects to the
esophagus at the top and the duodenum
(first part of small intestine which is
responsible for chemical digestion) at the
bottom. The stomach is responsible for
the digestion of proteins and the
movement of chyme (thick food material)
to the intestines. The muscularis layer of
the stomach contains three smooth
muscle layers; the extra layer helps in the
stretching of the stomach. The innermost
layer mucosa contains deep folds called
rugae, and many gastric pits which lead
to gastric glands. The gastric glands
produce an enzyme called pepsin which
aids in the digestion of proteins. They also
produce hydrochloric acid to kill any
bacteria and mucus. At the end of the
stomach is the pyloric sphincter which
controls the movement of chyme from the
stomach to the small intestine. Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader
Page 149
• The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Picture from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestines
 The Small and Large Intestine
Pictures from Human Biology by
Sylvia S. Mader page 150-151

The small intestine is responsible for completing digestion. The pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes which enter the small intestines at the duodenum and aid in
breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Bile (emulsifies fat) from the liver and
gallbladder is brought through the duodenum as well. Intestinal enzymes break
carbohydrates down to glucose and fat droplets to glycerol and fatty acids. Nutrient
absorption takes place in the small intestine, where the mucosa layer contains
projections known as villi which aid in the surface area for absorption. A villus contains
lymphatic capillaries known as lacteal which take large lipoproteins called chylomicrons
and deposit them into the blood stream. Sugar and amino acids move into the blood
stream from the blood vessels in a villus. People who are lactose intolerant do not have
the lactase enzyme in their small intestine to break lactose down.
 The Small and Large Intestine
Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine is not responsible for nutrient
absorption. The large intestine prevents dehydration by water absorption.
Also, the bacteria in the large intestine helps to break down further food
particles. Most importantly, the large intestine produces feces for excretion; a
combination of fiber, digestive materials, bacteria, and water. The color of
feces is caused by oxidized iron and the smell is caused by bacterial action.
The large intestine aids in homeostasis by ridding the body of its waste
through defecation. The large intestine will push feces into the end of the
intestine known as the rectum where it collects until defecation. byPicture from Human Biology
Sylvia S. Mader page 154

Disorders of Large Intestine

2. Diarrhea
3. Constipation
4. Hemorrhoids - inflamed blood vessels at anus
5. Diverticulosis – pouches of mucosa which push
through muscularis layer
6. Irritable Bowel Syndrome – muscularis
contracts abnormally
7. Inflammatory Bowel Syndrome – ulcers and
lesions
8. Polyps and Cancer – small growths
 Picture from Human
• The Digestive Tract Biology by Sylvia S. Mader
page 152

• The Mouth and Stomach

• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders
 Accessory Organs and their Functions
The accessory organs to the digestive tract consist of the pancreas, the liver, and the
gallbladder. The pancreas is a skinny pink colored organ that lies next to the
duodenum, where the pancreatic ducts secrete juices and digestive enzymes into the
duodenum. Starch is broken down by pancreatic amylase, protein by trypsin, and fat by
lipase. Sodium bicarbonate helps neutralize the acid in digested materials. In addition,
the pancreas produces a hormone known as insulin which counters high blood glucose
levels. The liver is the largest gland in the body and is responsible for cleaning the
blood. The liver contains about 100,000 lobules where blood filters through and is
detoxified. Also, the liver removes vitamins and iron for storage, and stores glucose as
glycogen to aid in normal blood glucose levels in between eating.

The liver is responsible for maintaining

blood cholesterol levels by converting
cholesterol into bile salts which
emulsify fats in the small intestine. Bile
gets its yellowish color from bilirubin,
the disassembly of hemoglobin, which
is another function the liver is
responsible for. The gallbladder is the
storage tank for bile. It sits below the
liver and connects to the duodenum
via the bile duct. Sometimes the liquid
will harden in the gallbladder causing
hard pieces known as gallstones.

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver

Accessory Organs and their Functions Liver Disorders
• Jaundice – bile pigments transfer
into blood turning eyes and/or
skin yellowish.
• Hepatitis – liver inflammation due
to virus. Hep. A is usually from
sewage tainted food or beverage.
Hep. B is usually spread through
sexual contact, contaminated
needles, blood transfusions, and
from mother to baby during
childbirth. There is a vaccine for
both. Hep. C is spread through
blood and there is no vaccine for
it. There are now 6 known
hepatitides.
• Cirrhosis – dead liver cells are
replaced by fibrous scar tissue.
Usually seen in malnourished
individuals such as alcoholics or
obesity.
Liver of a sheep, visceral aspect
• Cancer
“1. right lobe, 2. left lobe, 3. caudate lobe, 4.
• Haemochromatosis – iron buildup
quadrate lobe, 5. hepatic artery and portal vein, in body leads to liver damage.
6. hepatic lymph nodes, 7. gall bladder” Hereditary disease.
• Wilson’s Disease – hereditary;
Picture and Verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver
causes body to retain copper.
• The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Pictures from
http://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Carbohydrates
&
http://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Egg_%28food
%29 &
http://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Coconut_oil &
http://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Salmon
 Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
Carbohydrates
• Simple or Complex
• Glucose (simple) used as energy
• Complex units digested to glucose
• Brain cells need glucose
• Fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose
• Fiber, vitamins, and minerals are removed during
refinement of grains
• Insoluble fiber aids in normal bowel movement
• Soluble fiber prevents small intestine from
absorbing cholesterol and bile salts
Proteins
• Proteins are broken down when digested,
becoming amino acids
• 20 amino acids, 8 are essential amino acids
• Not stored in body, needed daily
• amino acids cannot be utilized if one
essential amino acid is missing
• High protein diets can lead to dehydration
and calcium loss, which can lead to kidney
stones
• Too much saturated fat from some meats,
such as red meats, can lead to cardiovascular
disease

Lipids
• Lipids are bylayer for cells, used as energy storage, metabolism, and signaling
• Lipids contain triglycerides/fats (saturated and unsaturated), oils, and cholesterol which can lead to
plaque
• Saturated fats: usually from animal sources; solid form at room temperature such as butter; palm
kernel, cottonseed, and coconut oil; some dairy products such as creams and cheese
• Polyunsaturated fats: oils such as corn and safflower; contain linoleic and linolenic acids which
cannot be made by body (essential fatty acids must be supplied by diet); omega-3 fatty acid
(obtained from some fish types and flax)
• Monounsaturated fats: oils such as peanut, grapeseed, sesame, olive, canola, flaxseed, and tea
seed; nuts and avocado
 Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) carry cholesterol
through the blood. LDL is considered bad because it transports the cholesterol and
triglycerides to tissues where it can build plaque. HDL is considered good because it
transports the cholesterol from tissues straight to the liver where it is changed into bile
salts. LDL levels are raised by consumption of saturated fats and lowered by
consumption of unsaturated fats.

8 Essential Amino Acids

20 Amino Acids

Pictures from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid
 • The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Picture from
http://www.diseaseeducation.com/wellness/Vitamins_Minerals.php
 Minerals and Vitamins
Major Minerals
• Body contains > 5 grams, components of
cells and tissues
• Calcium (for muscle, heart and digestive
system health, builds bone, neutralizes
acidity, supports synthesis and function of
blood cells)*
• Chloride (for production of hydrochloric
acid in the stomach and in cellular pump
functions)*
• Magnesium is required for processing ATP
and related reactions (health, builds bone,
increases alkalinity)*
• Phosphorus is a component of bones and
energy processing and many other functions
(bone mineralization)*
• Potassium is a systemic electrolyte and is
essential in co-regulating ATP with sodium*
•Sodium is a systemic electrolyte and is
essential in co-regulating ATP with
potassium*
• Sulfur is an essential component of
cysteine and methionine amino acids and
participates as an enzyme cofactor*
Trace Minerals
• Body contains < 5 grams, part of a larger
molecule
• Chromium is implicated in sugar metabolism in
humans*
• Cobalt is required for biosynthesis of vitamin
B12 family of coenzymes*
• Copper is required component of many
reduction/oxidation enzymes*
• Fluorine participates in formation of tooth
enamel which contains fluoroapatite*
• Iodine is required for the biosynthesis of
thyroxin*
• Iron is required for many proteins and enzymes,
notably hemoglobin*
• Manganese is a cofactor in function of
antioxidant enzymes*
• Molybdenum is required for xanthine oxidase
and related oxidases*
• Nickel is present in urease*
• Selenium is required for peroxidase (antioxidant
proteins)*
* Verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_mineral
 Minerals and Vitamins
Osteoporosis is a disease that affects the strength of bones. Due to weakening
bone, fractures are likely. The most common fractures in individuals with
osteoporosis is the wrists, hips, and lumbar vertebrae. Calcium is shown to slow
down bone degeneration and is therefore a major mineral needed. Magnesium
and vitamin D have also been shown to aid in slowing bone deterioration. Exercise
and nutrition are the best mechanisms against developing osteoporosis, and new
medicines can aid in treatment of the disease. Hypertension is heightened in
individuals who consume a diet high in sodium (salt).

“A scanner used to
measure bone density
with dual energy X-ray
absorptiometry.”

Verbiage and Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osteoporosis#Diseases_and_disorders &

http://kidneyinthenews.wordpress.com/2007/12/12/transplanted-kidneys-lead-to-fractures-and-bone-loss/
Picture from
Human
Biology by
Sylvia S.
Mader Page
161
Minerals and Vitamins
Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin
Vitamins are nutrients that
humans need but cannot
produce adequately. There are
several types of vitamins, all
considered organic compounds.
Some functions of vitamins
include enzyme helpers,
hormones, antioxidants, cell
signaling and metabolism, and
regulators of growth in tissues
and cells. Vitamins are
classified into two categories:
water-soluble and fat-soluble.
Water-soluble vitamins (B1, B2,
B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, and C)
can dissolve in water with no
trouble, while fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E and K) need
help from lipids where they
dissolve in the intestines. Most
vitamins can be obtained
through food consumption,
while some such as D can be
acquired from ultraviolet lights
and K and B7 can be obtained
from microorganisms that live
in the intestines. Vitamins A, C,
and E are termed antioxidants
because they fight against free
radicals, a molecule with extra
Vitamin Table (fat-soluble) Picture from Human Biology
by Sylvia S. Mader pg 163
 Vitamin Table (water-soluble)

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader

• The Digestive Tract
• The Mouth and Stomach
• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity#BMI

 Obesity and Diseases
Obesity is the condition of being overweight and is associated with an
abundance of health problems. More than 1/3 of American’s are considered to
be obese. Excess body fat is associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
high blood pressure, osteoarthritis, respiratory problems, sleep apnea, stroke,
certain types of cancer and organ diseases, and increase risk of thrombosis.

Obesity is measured by ones body

mass index (BMI), which is an
individuals weight (kg) divided by the
square of the height (meters). The
BMI chart above will tell you how
much of a persons weight is fat
(adipose tissue). Eating healthy foods
and getting adequate exercise can
help reduce obesity and future health
problems.
Pictures from http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fdweigh3.html &
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index
 Picture from Human Biology
• The Digestive Tract by Sylvia S. Mader page 165

• The Mouth and Stomach

• The Small and Large Intestine
• Accessory Organs and their Functions
• Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
• Minerals and Vitamins
• Obesity and Diseases
• Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Muscle Dysmorphia

 Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia Nervosa
• Afraid of getting fat
• Psychological
disorder; culture,
family, and stress can
bring it on
• Refusal to eat
• Malnourished, low
body weight
• Extreme physical
activity to lose weight
or purging
• Occasional binges
• Laxative abuse
• Mostly young
teenage woman

Picture from http://www.4women.gov/faq/easyread/anorexia-etr.htm

 Eating Disorders: Bulimia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
• Constant binge eating
and purging
• Psychological
disorder; culture,
family, and stress can
bring it on
• Malnourishment, low
to normal body weight
• Laxative abuse
• Anemia, heart
problems, dehydration,
bowel problems,
menstrual cycle
problems, ulcers, and
esophagus and mouth
problems from vomiting
• Mostly woman suffer Some people binge-eat and do not purge
from this disorder afterwards. This is known as binge-eating
Picture from http://www.4women.gov/faq/Easyread/bulnervosa-
disorder.
 Eating Disorders: Muscle Dysmorphia
Muscle Dysmorphia
• Obsessed with muscle strengthening;
is not satisfied with appearance of
body, not muscular enough
• Spend obsessive time working out,
strength training
• Constantly examining their body in
the mirror
• Easily stressed if they miss a work out
session or meal
• Consume a heavy protein diet
• May take steroids or muscle building
products
• Affects mostly men; depression and
cultural pressures can be an onset of
the obsession
Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader page 165
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