Introduction To SQL: Tata Consultancy Services

INTRODUCTION TO SQL
TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Oracle’s relational database
What is a relational database?

 A relational database is a collection of data items which can be accessed or
reassembled in many different ways without having to reorganize the
tables.
 Relational databases recognize the fact that data needs to be accessed
several ways in order to be valuable. Rather than duplicating the
information in several places, the data is broken down into sets of related
information within tables. These tables can then be joined when needed to
create the desired result.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Character set & symbols
Character set
 Type Character
 Letters A-Z, a-z
 Digits 0-9
 Symbols ~!@#$%&*()-+=[]{}"‘,.?|:;
 Whitespace tab, space, carriage return
 SQL is not a case-sensitive language. Uppercase and lowercase letters are
treated the same way with the exception of literal strings (alphanumeric
characters surrounded by single quotes) and character variables (variables
designated with the "&" prefix). Though SQL is case-insensitive, stick to
using UPPERCASE for keywords and reserved words. It is much easier to
read

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 Simple and compound symbols
Symbol Description
; statement terminator
% multibyte wild card symbol
_ singlebyte wild card symbol
(underscore)
<> and != not equals
|| concatenation operator
<= and >= relational operator
-- single line comment indicator
(dash)
/* and */ multiline comment block
delimiters

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Data Definition Using SQL
 Data definition language (DDL) statements enable you to perform these

tasks:
Create, alter, and drop schema objects
Grant and revoke privileges and roles
Analyze information on a table, index
Add comments to the data dictionary
Oracle commits the current transaction before and after every
DDL command

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle

CREATE TABLE
 The create table statement is used to create a new table.

 Syntax
 create table "tablename"
 ("column1" "data type",
 "column2" "data type",
 "column3" "data type");
 Format of create table if you were to use optional constraints:
 create table "tablename"
 ("column1" "data type"
 [constraint],
 "column2" "data type"
 [constraint],
 "column3" "data type"
 [constraint]);
 [ ] = optional

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 Example
 create table employee

 (first varchar2(15),
 last varchar2(20),
 age number(3),
 address varchar2(30),
 city varchar2(20),
 state varchar2(20));
 To create a new table, enter the keywords create table followed by the table name, followed
by an open parenthesis, followed by the first column name, followed by the data type for that
column, followed by any optional constraints, and followed by a closing parenthesis. It is
important to make sure you use an open parenthesis before the beginning table, and a closing
parenthesis after the end of the last column definition. Make sure you separate each column
definition with a comma. All SQL statements should end with a ";".
 The table and column names must start with a letter and can be followed by letters, numbers,
or underscores - not to exceed a total of 30 characters in length. Do not use any SQL reserved
keywords as names for tables or column names (such as "select", "create", "insert", etc).

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 ALTER TABLE
 Use Alter table command to change the definition of a table. Here is the format of a simple alter table statement:
 Syntax
 ALTER TABLE [schema.] table

 { [ ADD ( { column_element | column_constraint)
 [ , column_element | column_constraint ) ] …) ]
 [ MODIFY (column_element [ , column_element]…) ]
 [ DROP drop_clause] …
 [ ENABLE enable_clause ] …
 [ DISABLE disable_clause ] ...
 Example
 Alter table employee add (town varchar2(20));
 Alter table employee modify (town varchar2(40));
 alter table employee modify(first not null);
 Alter table employee drop (town);
 DROP TABLE
 To remove a table from the database use the Drop table command . Here is the format of a simple alter table
statement:

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 Syntax:
 DROP TABLE “tablename”;
 EXAMPLE:
 Drop table employee;
 Datatypes
 Number
 Character
 Long
 Date-time

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 Number(size,d) :- Number value with a maximum number of digits of "size" total,
with a maximum number of "d" digits to the right of the decimal.
 Number(size) :- Number value with a max number of column digits specified in
parenthesis.
 Char(size) :-Fixed-length character string. Size is specified in parenthesis. Max 255
bytes.
 Varchar2(size) :- Variable-length character string. Max size of 2000.
 Date:-Date value from Jan 1 ,4712 BC to Dec 31,4712 AD.
 Timestamp :- Stores all the information that the DATE datatype stores, but also
includes fractional seconds.(This is a new feature added in Oracle 9i).
 Long :- Variable length character values upto 2GB.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Integrity Constraint
 Define the conditions under which data is valid
 Table Constraints
 Part of the table definition
 Column Constraints
 Part of the column definition
 Constraint Types
 Not Null Constraint
 Primary Key Constraint
 Unique Constraint
 Check Constraint
 Foreign Key (Referential Integrity Constraint)

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 NOT NULL Constraint
 Specifies that a column cannot contain nulls
 If you do not specify this constraint, the default is NULL
 EXAMPLE:-
 ALTER TABLE hobbies (hobbies_type_code NOT NULL);
 Primary Key Constraint

 Designates a column or combination of columns to be the table’s primary key
 Both of these conditions must be true:
 No primary key value can appear in more than one row in the table
 No column that is part of the primary key can contain a NULL
 EXAMPLE:-
 ALTER TABLE hobbies ADD CONSTRAINT PK_swvterm PRIMARY KEY
(term_code);

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 Unique Constraint
 Designate a column or combination of columns as a unique key
 No two rows in the table can have the same value for a unique key
 Cannot designate the same column or combination of columns as both a unique key and
the primary key
 EXAMPLE:-
 ALTER TABLE ABC ADD CONSTRAINT abc_code UNIQUE (detc_code);

 Check Constraints
 Explicitly define a condition.

 To satisfy the constraint, each row in the table must make the condition either TRUE or
unknown (due to NULL)
 ALTER TABLE twraccd ADD CONSTRAINT check_trans_type CHECK (trans_type IN ('C', 'P'));
 ALTER TABLE twraccd ADD CONSTRAINT check_amount CHECK (amount > 0 );

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Manipulation Language (DML) commands query and manipulate data in existing schema
objects
 SELECT
 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE
 These commands do not implicitly commit the current transaction.
 SELECT
 The purpose of a SELECT statement is to display columns and rows from one or more tables. This
is also known as querying the database.
 Syntax : SELECT * FROM <table name>;
 Example : SELECT deptno, ename, mgr FROM emp;
 SELECT DISTINCT ename FROM emp;
 SELECT ename, deptno FROM emp ORDER BY ename;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 INSERT
 The INSERT command is used to add rows to a table.
 Syntax :
 INSERT INTO table_name [ (column,column, …..) ]
 VALUES ( value,value, ….);
 Example :
 INSERT INTO emp (first, last, age, address, city, state) values ('Luke',
 'Duke', 45, '2130 Boars Nest', 'Hazard Co', 'Georgia');
 UPDATE
 The update statement is used to update or change records that match a
 specified criteria.
 Syntax :
 Update "tablename” set "columnname" = "newvalue” where "columnname"
OPERATOR "value" [and|or "column" OPERATOR "value"];
 Example :
 Update phone_book set area_code = 623 where prefix = 979;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 DELETE
 The delete statement is used to delete records or rows from the table.
 Syntax :
 delete from "tablename” where "columnname" OPERATOR "value"
 [and|or "column” OPERATOR "value"];
 Example :
 delete from employee where lastname = 'May';

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Arithmetic Expressions and Functions
 Objectives
Use arithmetic expressions to perform calculations on data
 Use the following within your SQL statements:
 Numeric functions
 Character functions
 Date functions
 Conversion functions
 Group functions
Arithmetic Expressions
 Arithmetic expressions allow you to perform calculations on data:
SELECT ENGLISH, ENGLISH+ 100 FROM TEST;
 ENGLISH ENGLISH+100
 ---------- --------------
 550 650
 530 630


Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 SELECT English, math, English+math "TOTAL" FROM test;
 ENGLISH MATHS TOTAL
 ---------- --------- ---------
 550 480 1030
 530 580 1110
 Order Of Evaluation
 The RDBMS evaluates each arithmetic expression in the following precedence:
 Division
 Multiplication
 Addition
 Subtraction
 To override the precedence, use parentheses
 Example :
 In this example, 100 is divided by 12, and then is added to the balance
 SELECT balance, balance + 100/12 from emp;
 BALANCE BALANCE+100/12
 1500.5 1508.8333

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 In the second example, 100 is added to the balance, and then the total is divided by 12
SELECT balance, (balance + 100)/12 FROM emp;
 BALANCE (BALANCE+100)/12
 -------------- ---------------------------
 1500.5 133.375
 Numeric Functions
 ABS(n)
Returns the absolute value of n.
 SELECT ABS(-32) FROM DUAL;
 ABS(-32)
 ---------
 32
 CEIL(n)
Returns smallest integer greater than or equal to n

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 SELECT CEIL(12.8) FROM DUAL;
 CEIL(12.8)
 --------------
 13
 FLOOR(n)
 Returns largest integer equal or less than n
 SELECT FLOOR(12.8) FROM DUAL;
 FLOOR (12.8)
 ------------
 12
 MOD(m,n)
 Returns the remainder of m divided by n
 SELECT MOD(5,2) FROM DUAL;
 MOD(5,2)
 --------
 1

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 POWER(m,n)
 Returns m raised to the nth power
SELECT POWER(10,2) FROM DUAL;
 POWER(10,2)
 -----------------
 100
 ROUND(n [,m])
 Returns n rounded to m places right of the decimal point
SELECT ROUND(15.67,1) FROM DUAL;
 ROUND(15.67,1)
 --------------
 15.7
 SIGN(n)
If n < 0, the function returns -1; if n =0, the function returns 0; if n>0, then the function
returns 1
SELECT SIGN(-15) FROM DUAL;
 SIGN(-15)
 ---------
 -1
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
TRUNC(n [,m])
Returns n truncated to m decimal places
 SELECT TRUNC(16.99,1) FROM DUAL;
 TRUNC(16.99,1)
 --------------
 16.9
Character Functions
ASCII(char)
Returns the ASCII value for the given character
 SELECT ASCII('A') FROM DUAL;
ASCII('A')
 ----------
 65
CHR(n)
Returns the character having ASCII value n
SELECT CHR(65) FROM DUAL;
C
 ----
 A
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 CONCAT(m,n) or ||' '||
 Merges together two fields, specified by m and n
 SELECT CONCAT(first_name,last_name) "Name" FROM name_list;
 Name
 ----------------
 SatyaDash
 INITCAP(char)
 Returns char with the first letter of each word in uppercase and all others lowercase
 SELECT INITCAP('BASEBALL') FROM DUAL;
 INITCAP(
 ---------------
 Baseball
 LOWER(char)
 Returns char, with all letters forced to lowercase
 SELECT LOWER('BASEBALL') FROM DUAL;
 LOWER('B
 ---------------
 baseball

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
UPPER(char)
Returns char, with all letters forced to uppercase
 SELECT UPPER('big letters') "Upper Case" FROM DUAL;
 Upper Case
 -----------
 BIG LETTER
LPAD(char1, n [,char2])
Returns char1, left-padded to length n with the sequence of characters in char2
 SELECT LPAD(pidm,8,0) "PIDM" FROM emp;
 PIDM
 --------------
 00012340
RPAD(char1, n [,char2])
Returns char1, right-padded to length n with sequence in char2
 SELECT RPAD(last_name, 20, '. ')||id "ID Listing" FROM swriden WHERE change_ind IS NULL;
ID Listing
-----------------------------------
Brown...........157834585
Smith...........3539543TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
LTRIM(char [, set])
Removes characters from the left of char
SELECT LTRIM('123ABC123','123') FROM DUAL;
LTRIM(
------
ABC123
RTRIM(char [, set])
Removes characters from the right of char
 SELECT RTRIM('123ABC123','123') FROM DUAL;
 RTRIM(
 ------
 123ABC
SUBSTR(char, m [,n])
Returns a portion of char, beginning at character m, n characters long (if n is omitted, to the end of char)
SELECT SUBSTR('Systems and Computer Technology',1,25) "Substring" FROM DUAL;
Substring
-------------------------
Systems and Computer Tech

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 LENGTH(char)
Returns the length of char
 SELECT length('abc') FROM DUAL;
LENGTH('ABC')
-------------
 3
Date Functions
 ADD_MONTHS(d, n)
Returns the date d plus n months. Can be negative to subtract months
 SELECT ADD_MONTHS('10-DEC-97',2) FROM DUAL;
ADD_MONTH
---------
10-FEB-98
 LAST_DAY(d)
Returns the date of the last day of the month that contains d
 SELECT LAST_DAY('15-JAN-97') FROM DUAL;
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-JAN-97

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 TRUNC(d, [,fmt])
Returns d with the time portion on the day truncated the unit specified by the format model fmt
 SELECT TRUNC(TO_DATE('04-FEB-97'), 'YEAR') "Date" FROM DUAL;
 Date
 ---------
 01-JAN-97
Conversion Functions
TRANSLATE (char, from, to)
Returns char with all occurrences of each character in from replaced by its corresponding character in to
 SELECT TRANSLATE ('PERRY','P','J') FROM DUAL;
 TRANS
 ----------------
 JERRY
SELECT TRANSLATE ('ABC123ABC123','B3','X0') "Translate" FROM DUAL;

Translate
--------------------
AXC120AXC120

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 NVL(expr1, expr2)
NULLs in a fields can give unexpected results; it’s best to convert the NULL into another value
SELECT NVL(sat_math,0), NVL(sat_verbal,0), NVL(sat_math,0) + NVL(sat_verbal,0) "Tot Score"
FROM swrtest;
NVL(SAT_MATH,0) NVL(SAT_VERBAL,0) Tot Score
-------------------------- ----------------------------- ------------
480 550 1030
580 530 111
0 520 520
 DECODE(expr, search1, result1, [search2, result2,]...[default])

Converts the retrieved value from the database (search value) to a value that you specify (result2)
SELECT pidm,DECODE(sex,'F','Female', 'M','Male','Unknown') "Gender" FROM swbpers;
PIDM Gender
-------- ----------
12340 Female
12341 Male
12345 Unknown
SELECT DECODE(refund, 'Y', amount * -1, amount) FROM ...

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
 INSTR(char1, char2 [, n [ ,m]])
Searches char1 beginning with its nth character for the mth occurrence of char2 and returns the position of
the character in char1 that is the first character of this occurrence
SELECT INSTR('MISSISSIPPI','SS') FROM DUAL;
STRING
---------
3
 REPLACE(char, search_string [, replace_string])
Returns char with every occurrence of search_string replaced with replacement_string
SELECT REPLACE('100 Lakeshore Drive #3', '#','No. ') "Changes" FROM DUAL;
Changes
-------------------------
100 Lakeshore Drive No. 3
 TO_DATE(char [,fmt])
Converts a character value to a date value. If the fmt clause is omitted, then the character value must
have the default format of 'DD-MON-YY'
INSERT INTO swvterm VALUES (20008,'Fall Semester 2000', TO_DATE('010197','DDMMYY'));

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Group Functions
 Allow you to obtain summary information about groups of rows
 All group functions, except COUNT, ignore null values
 AVG(n)
Returns the average value of n
SELECT AVG(gpa) FROM swrregs;
AVG(GPA)
--------------
2.6052632
 COUNT( { * | expr })
Returns the number of rows in a query. If specifying a count on a particular column, the null values are
not included
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM swrregs;
COUNT(*)
---------------
26
SELECT COUNT(gpa) FROM swrregs;
COUNT(GPA)
--------------------
19

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle

 MAX(expr)
Returns the maximum value of expr
SELECT MAX(gpa) FROM swrregs;
MAX(GPA)
---------
4
 MIN(expr)
Returns the minimum value of expr
SELECT MIN(gpa) FROM swrregs;
MIN(GPA)
---------
0
 SUM(n)
 Returns sum of values of n
SELECT SUM(gpa) FROM SWRREGS;
SUM(GPA)
---------
49.5

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Comparison operators
Operators are used in WHERE clauses to compare values.
Operator Function Examples

() Overrides precedence SELECT ( X + Y) / (X - Y)
= Test for equality ...WHERE last_name = ‘SMITH'
!=, ^=, <> Test for inequality ...WHERE last_name <>‘SMITH'
> Greater than ...WHERE sat_verbal > 450
>= Greater than or equal to ...WHERE sat_verbal >= 450
< Less than ...WHERE sat_math < 450

<= Less than or equal to ...WHERE sat_math <= 450
Example :
SELECT ROWNUM, pidm, last_name FROM swriden WHERE ROWNUM < 5;

SELECT * from employee where emp_id = 121245 ;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Pseudocolumns
 SEQUENCES
 CURRVAL and NEXTVAL
 ROWID
 ROWNUM
A pseudocolumns behaves like a table column, but is not actually stored in the table. You can select from
pseudocolumns, but you cannot insert, update, or delete their values.
 SEQUENCES
 A sequence is a database object from which multiple users may generate unique integers. You can use
 sequences to automatically generate primary keys.
 CURRVAL and NEXTVAL
CURRVAL returns the current value of a sequence

NEXTVAL increments the sequence and returns the next value

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Example :
 SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE empno = eno.CURRVAL;
 UPDATE emp SET empno = eno.NEXTVAL WHERE empno = 7655 ;
 ROWID
 For each row in the database, the ROWID pseudocolumn returns a row’s address. ROWID
 values contain information necessary to locate a row.
 Example :
 SELECT ROWID, ename FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20 ;
 ROWNUM
 For each row returned by a query, the ROWNUM pseudocolumn returns a number.
 Example :
 SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ROWNUM < 10 ;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Joins
A join is a SELECT statement that combines rows from two or more tables and/or views. Oracle performs
joins whenever multiple tables appear in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement.
EQUI-JOIN
Returns rows from two or more tables based on an equality condition.
SELECT select_list FROM table1 [,table2] [,table3] …
WHERE table1.column = table2.column
[AND table1.column = table3.column] …
Example :
SELECT last_name||', '||first_name||' '||mi NAME, street_line1||' '|| city||', '||stat_code||' '|| zip
ADDRESS FROM swriden, swbaddr WHERE swriden.pidm = swbaddr.pidm
AND change_ind IS NULL;
 OUTER-JOINS
An outer join returns all the rows returned by an equi-join as well as those rows from one table that
do not match any rows from the other table. The table that might not contain the matching data is
appended with a ‘(+)’ in the WHERE clause.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Example :
SELECT last_name||', '||first_name||' '||mi NAME,street_line1||' '||city||', '||stat_code||' '||

zip ADDRESS FROM swriden, swbaddr WHERE swriden.pidm = swbaddr.pidm (+)
AND change_ind IS NULL;
 SELF-JOINS
 There may be cases when you will need to join a table to itself. This is especially helpful when finding
 duplicates. In order to join a table to itself you must use table aliases.
Example :
SELECT A.term_code, A.description, B.term_code, B.description FROM swvterm A, swvterm B
WHERE A.term_code = B.term_code AND A.description <> B.description;
SET OPERATORS
 UNION
 To return all distinct rows retrieved by either of the queries.
 Example : SELECT deptno FROM emp
 UNION
 SELECT deptno FROM dept ;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
UNION ALL
To return all rows retrieved by either of the queries
Example : SELECT deptno FROM emp
UNION ALL
SELECT deptno FROM dept ;
INTERSECT
To return only rows retrieved by both of the queries
INTERSECT
MINUS
To return all rows retrieved by first query that are not in the second query
MINUS

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Data Transaction Language
 COMMIT
 In order for changes to become permanent they must be committed to the database. The
COMMIT command makes database changes permanent. ROLLBACK allows us to discard or
abandon changes. The change made to the database between two commit commands therefore make
up a transaction. Until a transaction is committed none of its changes are visible to other users.
 ROLLBACK
 Uncommitted changes may be abandoned by typing ROLLBACK. ROLLBACK will
return data to the state it was I immediately after your last COMMIT by discarding all changes
made since the last commit.
 SAVEPOINT
 Save point allows you to arbitrarily “hold” your work at any point in time with the
option of later committing that work or undoing all or a portion of it. Thus for a long transaction you
can save parts of it as you proceed finally committing or rolling back. If you make an error you need
not resubmit every statement. If you create a second save point with the same name as an earlier save
point the earlier save point is deleted. The maximum number of save points per user process defaults
to 5. This limit can be changed.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Data Control Language
 GRANT
 To grant privileges for a particular object to users and roles. To grant system privileges
and roles, use the GRANT command. You must own the object or the owner of the object
must grant you the object privileges with the GRANT option. This rule applies to users
with the DBA role. Grants all the privileges for the object that you have been granted with
the GRANT OPTION.
GRANT object_priv [ALL] [(column)] ON [schema.] object TO user [PUBLIC]

WITH GRANT OPTION;
 REVOKE
 To revoke object privileges from users and roles, use the REVOKE command.
 You must have been granted the system privilege or role with the ADMIN OPTION. Also, you
can revoke any role if you have the GRANT ANY ROLE system privilege.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
Views
A View is a logical table based on a query. Views themselves do not store data, but present data
from other sources. Data can be queried, inserted, updated, and deleted from views. Views simplify
the presentation of data by hiding the actual structure of the base table.
 CREATING VIEWS
 Views are used for these purposes :
 To provide an additional level of table security, by restricting access to a
predetermined set of rows and/or columns of a base table
 To hide data complexity. A view may be used to act as one table when actually
several tables are used to construct the results
 To present data from another perspective. For example, views provide a means of
renaming columns without actually changing the base table’s definition
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [FORCE | NOFORCE] VIEW [schema.] view [ (alias [, alias] .. ) ]
AS subquery [WITH CHECK OPTION [CONSTRAINT constraint]]
Example : CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW swvsusp AS SELECT * FROM swrstdn

WHERE stdn_code = 'SS' WITH CHECK OPTION;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
The WITH CHECK OPTION clause of the CREATE VIEW statement restricts users from
inserting data violating the WHERE clause of the views query.
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name

SELECT attributes FROM table_name WHERE
attribute IN (condition,condition..,….)
WITH CHECK OPTION ;
The name assigned to the CHECK OPTION constraint. If the constraint is omitted, then
Oracle automatically assigns the constraint a name of the form, SYS_cn, where n is an integer that
makes the constraint name unique within the database.

INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
OVERVIEW
 Oracle’s procedural language extension to Oracle SQL
 Block structured language
 Bridges the gap between database technology and procedural
programming language
 Contains all SQL DML functionality
 Processed by it’s own PL/SQL engine
 The PL/SQL engine is incorporated into following products
Oracle Forms
SQL* Menu
Oracle Reports
Oracle Graphics

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PL/SQL ARCHITECTURE
 PL/SQL is a technology and an integrated part of oracle
 This technology is an engine that executes PL/SQL blocks and subprograms
 PL/SQL resides in 2 environments (Oracle Server & Oracle Tool)
 Engine executes procedural statements but sends SQL statement to SQL
statement executor
PL/SQL Block In
PL/SQL Engine
Application
SQL Statement
Executor
ORACLE Server
(PL/SQL Engine & Oracle Server)
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PL/SQL ARCHITECTURE
ORACLE PL/SQL PL/SQL Engine

Forms Block
SQL Statement Executor
PL/SQL Engine
ORACLEServer
(PL/SQL Engine & Oracle TOOL)
Advantages Of PL/SQL What PL/SQL can do for Programmers
1.Support for SQL 1. SQL data manipulation statement
2.Support for OOP 2. SQL transaction processing statement
3.Better Performance 3. SQL functions
4.High Productivity 4. SQL predicates
5.Full Portability
6.Tight Security & Integration with Oracle

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PL/SQL BLOCK STRUCTURE
 A PL/SQL block has 3 parts
 Declaration Part (All objects of the block declared here)
 Execution Part (The objects are defined to manipulate data)
 Exception Part (Error-Handling logic is placed here)
 The structure of a PL/SQL block looks like
DECLARE
Declarations
BEGIN
Executable Statements
EXCEPTION
Error Handling Statements
END;
Notes:
 Blocks can either be simple or nested (Any block may contain sub-blocks)
 Statements end with a semicolon(;)
 Comments are preceded by -- for inline comments or surrounded by /*…..*/
 Declared objects exists within a certain scope
 Two types of declarations a) CONSTANT and b)VARIABLE
 Data types available are NUMBER family , CHAR family , DATE, BOOLEAN and LOB family
 Variables can be declared with attributes %TYPE and %ROWTYPE
 Assignment to the variable is done with :=
 Self Variables can also be declared with SUBTYPE keyword
 Syntax : IDENTIFIER [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:=PlSql Expression];

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
SCOPE & VISIBILITY OF VARIABLE
 Scope of an identifier is the region of Program Unit (Block, Sub Program or Package) from
which you can reference the identifier
 Visibility of an identifier is the region from which you can reference the identifier using an
Unqualified name
SCOPE VISIBILITY
DECLARE DECLARE
X REAL; X REAL;
BEGIN BEGIN
………… …………..
DECLARE DECLARE
Solid Line Indicates OUTER X
X REAL; X REAL;
BEGIN Dotted Line Indicates INNER X BEGIN
……….. ………..
END; END;
…………. ……………
END; END;
 Identifiers declared in a PL/SQL block are considered local to that block and global to all sub-
blocks. Can not be declared twice in the same block.
 If a global identifier is re-declared in a sub-block, both identifiers remain in scope however
within the sub-block only local identifier is visible because you must use a qualified name to
reference the global variable
 A block can not reference identifiers declared in other blocks nested at same level.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
SCOPE & VISIBILITY OF VARIABLE
<<outer>>
DECLARE
a CHAR;
b CHAR;
BEGIN
--------Identifiers available here are a (CHAR) & b
<<subblock1>>
DECLARE
a INTEGER;
c REAL;
BEGIN -------Identifiers available here are a (INTEGER), b & c
if a = To_Number(outer.a) THEN …. Legal as it references the variable of parent block
END;
<<subblock2>>
DECLARE
d REAL;
BEGIN--------Identifiers available here are a (CHAR), b & d
if d = subblock1.a THEN -- Illegal as it can not identifiers identifier declared in subblock1
-- which is declared in the same label as subblock2.
END;
-------Identifiers available here are a (CHAR) & b
END;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CONTROL STRUCTURE
 There are 3 control structures available in PL/SQL
 Conditional/ Selection (IF & CASE statements solves)
 Iterative (LOOP & EXIT statement solves)
 Sequential (GOTO & NULL statement solves)
F
T F
Condition Iteration Sequence

 Conditional/Selection: To conditionally execute a statement or set of statements. IF & CASE
statements are used for this purpose. There are 3 forms of IF statement. IF - THEN, IF - THEN -
ELSE & IF - THEN - ELSIF
 Anything compared with NULL(THREE VALUED LOGIC) results in a NULL value.
 LOOP executes a statement or sequence of statements multiple times. There are 3 forms of LOOP
statement. 1) LOOP 2)WHILE - LOOP 3) FOR - LOOP

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CONTROL STRUCTURE
Example & Syntax Of Conditional/Selection Statements (IF & CASE)
IF CASE
IF <Condition> THEN CASE <Expression>
<Sequence Of Statements> WHEN <Condition> THEN <Statement
ELSIF <Condition> THEN --WHEN May be Repeated
<Sequence Of Statements> ELSE <Statement> END
-- ELSIF May be Repeated
[ELSE
* CASE Statements are put in SELECT Statements
<Sequence Of Statements>] * CASE Statements uses a selector rather than multiple
END IF; boolean exprn. to select seq. Of statements to execute
Example
IF grade=‘4’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Excl ’); CASE grade
ELSIF grade=‘3’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Expt’); WHEN ‘4’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Excl’);
ELSIF grade=‘2’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Expr’) WHEN ‘3’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Expt’);
ELSIF grade=‘1’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Exps’); WHEN ‘2’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Expr’);
ELSE dbms_output.put_line(‘Training’); WHEN ‘1’ THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Exps’);
END IF; ELSE dbms_output.put_line(‘Training’) END;
ITERATIVE STATEMENTS 1. (LOOP & EXIT) (Simple Loop)
 Encloses a sequence of statements between keyword LOOP and END LOOP. Exit statement exit any type of loop
immediately and program control goes to the immediate statement after the loop.
 Syntax for Simple LOOP and EXIT statement is as follows.
LOOP 1. EXIT;
<Sequence Of Statements> 2. EXIT WHEN <Condition>
END LOOP;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CONTROL STRUCTURE
Examples Of LOOP & EXIT Statement
LOOP LOOP
count = count + 1 count = count + 1
IF count > 100 THENEXIT WHEN count > 100;
EXIT; --Exists the current Loop …………………..
END IF; END LOOP;
…………………..
END LOOP;
 LOOP can also be labeled which sometimes helps in exiting of the outer LOOP also.
Example:1 Example: 2
<<my_loop>> <<outer>>
LOOP LOOP
………… ……………..
END LOOP my_loop; <<inner>>
LOOP
Note: Label Name After Keyword EXIT outer WHEN <condition>; --Exits Both Loop
END LOOP is not mandatory. END LOOP;
END LOOP outer;
ITERATIVE STATEMENTS 2. WHILE LOOP
 WHILE LOOP repeats a sequence of statements until a specified condition is no longer true.
Syntax : WHILE <Condition> LOOP Note: 1. The Term <Condition> may be an PL/SQL Condition
<Sequence Of Statements> (must return Boolean Value or NULL.
END LOOP; 2. The Sequence of Statements will be repeated as long
<Condition> evaluates to TRUE.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CONTROL STRUCTURE
ITERATIVE STATEMENTS 3. FOR LOOP
 Repeats a sequence of statements a fixed number of times.
Syntax: FOR <Index> IN [REVERSE] lower_bound .. Higher_bound LOOP
<Sequence Of Statements>
END LOOP;
Example Showing Use Of WHILE LOOP & FOR LOOP
DECLARE FOR count IN 1..100 LOOP
count Number(3) :=0; …………...
BEGIN END LOOP;
WHILE count <= 100 LOOP •The loop index take on each value in range, one at a time, either in forward
…….. direction or Reverse order.
•The loop index is implicitly of type NUMBER
Count = count + 1;
•The loop index is only defined within the loop. Can not reference it outside Loop.
END LOOP; •The range of loop (lower_bound & higher_bound) must evaluate to numbers
END; otherwise EXCEPTION (VALUE_ERROR) will be raised by Oracle.
SEQUENTIAL CONTROL STATEMENTS 1. NULL

 It does nothing other than pass the control to the next statement. Syntax is NULL;
 NULL statement and Boolean Non-Value NULL are different
 You can use NULL in the IF condition for doing nothing in any branch of the condition.
SEQUENTIAL CONTROL STATEMENTS 2. GOTO
 The GOTO statement branches to a label unconditionally. Syntax is GOTO <label_name>
 The label name must be unique within its scope and must precede an executable statement or PL/SQL block.
 GOTO works in the sequence of statements that encloses the GOTO statement.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CONTROL STRUCTURE
Example Showing Use Of GOTO & NULL statement
BEGIN DECLARE
……………… done BOOLEAN :=TRUE;
<<Update_Row>> BEGIN
BEGIN <<Outer>>
UPDATE emp SET …. FOR I IN 1..50 LOOP
END; IF done THEN
……………….. GOTO End_Loop;
GOTO Update_Row; --legal END IF;
END; ……………
<<End_Loop>> --Illegal as does not precede END LOOP Outer; Executable statement
END;
Restrictions On GOTO
 From an inner block, LOOP or IF statement (1)
 From an IF clause to other IF clause(3)
 From an exception handler block into the current block (2)
BEGIN BEGIN BEGIN
GOTO abc; ………….. IF X > 3 THEN
BEGIN <<abc>> GOTO abc;
………… ………….. ELSE
<<abc>> EXCEPTION <<abc>>
Example1 Example2 Example3
END; WHEN OTHERS THEN ……………..
…………… GOTO abc; END IF;
END; END; END;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
SUB PROGRAM
 Named PL/SQL blocks that can take parameters and can be invoked.
 PL/SQL has 2 types of Sub Programs 1. PROCEDURE & 2.FUNCTION
PROCEDURE
 Named PL/SQL block that can take parameters, perform an action and can be invoked.
 Generally used to perform an action and to pass values
FUNCTION
 Named PL/SQL block that can take parameters, perform an action and return a value.
Syntax For Creating PROCEDURE Syntax For Creating FUNCTION
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE [schema.] procedureName --Same--
(argument {IN, OUT, IN OUT} datatype [{:=,DEFAULT} initial value],…) {IS,AS} --As Procedure--
Variable Declarations; --Except RETURN--
Constant Declarations; --CLAUSE--
BEGIN --Before {IS,AS} --
PL/SQL Sub Program Body That means RETURN <datatype> {IS,AS}
EXCEPTION
Exception PL/SQL Block
END;
 Procedures/Functions are made up of
a) Declarative Part b)Executable Part c)Optional Exception Handling Part
 There are 3 types of Argument Modes
 IN : Data values come in from the calling process and does is not changed (The default)
 OUT : No Data values comes. On Normal exit value of argument is passed back to caller.
 IN OUT: Data value comes in from calling process & another value is returned on normal exit.
 ADVANTAGES : 1. Security 2. Performance 3. Memory Allocation 4. Productivity 5. Integrity

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
SUB PROGRAM
 CREATE Any PROCEDURE/FUNCTION system privilege is required to create Pro/Fun.
 A PROCEDURE accepts one or more values as parameter (or None at all) and can return one or
more values(or None at all) whereas a function accepts one or more values as parameters (or
None at all) but always returns a result.
 Parameter data types can not be of type PLS_INTEGER.
 In Procedure/function it is illegal to constrain char/varchar/varchar2 parameters with a length
and number parameters with a precision and/or scale.
 Names of Sub Programs reside in System View USER_OBJECTS, ALL_OBJECTS and
DBA_OBJECTS and source code in USER_SOURCE, ALL_SOURCE, DBA_SOURCE.
 There are 3 ways of passing parameters 1. Positional 2.Named 3. Combination of these
 If a parameter has a default value then it does not have to be passed from calling envn.
 RETURN statement can also be used in PROCEDURE. But it should not contain any expression.
The statement simply returns control to the caller before normal end of pro.
 A Sub Program Can contain several RETURN statements. Executing any of them completes the
sub program immediately. The RETURN statement used in FUNCTION must contain an
expression, which is evaluated, when the statement is executed.
 To drop a Sub Program Syntax is : DROP <Procedure Name/Function Name>;
 After dropping a sub program it marks dependent objects for re-compilation.
 Valid Statements inside a Sub Program body are SQL DML/PL-SQL, calls to other
procedures/functions in the same database/remote database.
 To re-compile a Sub Program Syntax Is: ALTER <Sub Prog Type> <Name> COMPILE;
 To View errors during creation Syntax Is: SHO[W] Err[ors] OR From System Error Views.
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
SUB PROGRAM
 Any Sub Program can raise an error and return a user-defined error message and error number
using the syntax RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR(Error_Number, Error_Message);
 Reasons for Re-Compilation could fail are
 Changing parameter list in called procedure
 Changing definition of or removing referenced columns from referenced table.
 Dropping referenced tables.
 If a Sub Program is called with Mixed Notation (POSITIONAL & NAMED) then first arguments must
be specified by Position. Parameters are of 2 Types 1. ACTUAL and 2. FORMAL
How ORACLE Creates a Stored PROCEDURE/FUNCTION
 Compiles the PROCEDURE/FUNCTION
 Stores the compiled code
 Stores the PROCEDURE/FUNCTION in the database.
How ORACLE Executes a Stored PROCEDURE/FUNCTION
 Verifies the Use Access (Checks for EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE/FUNCTION Privilege)
 Verifies the PROCEDURE Validity (Status In USER_OBJECTS System View)
 Executes the PROCEDURE/FUNCTION (EXEC[UTE] <Procedure Name>)
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE fire_employee(empId IN NUMBER,empName OUT CHAR)
BEGIN
DELETE FROM empMst WHERE Id = empId AND Name=empName; To Call This Procedure From SQL*PLUS
END; EXEC fire_employee(ID,NAME);

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PACKAGE
 A group of related PROCEDURES, FUNCTIONS, CURSOR definitions, VARIABLES,
CONSTANTS and EEXCEPTION Definitions.
 Made up of 2 Components. 1.PACKAGE BODY & 2. PACKAGE SPECIFICATION.
 The specification is an INTERFACE to an application and has declarative statements.
 The PACKAGE BODY contains different PROCEDURES/FUNCTIONS.
SYNTAX TO CREATE A PACKAGE 1. PACKAGE SPECIFICATION.
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PACKAGE [schema.] Package_name IS/AS
<PL/SQL Package Specification>
END [Package_Name];
SYNTAX TO CREATE A PACKAGE 2. PACKAGE BODY
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PACKAGE BODY [schema.] Package_Body IS/AS
<Public/Local Variables>
<Definitions Of Sub Programs>
END [Package_Body];
ADVANTAGES OF PACKAGE
1. Modularity 2. Easier Application Design 3.Information Hiding
4. Added Functionality 5. Better Performance
CONSTRUCTS In PACKAGE
 Public Package Constructs : Declared In PACKAGE SPECIFICATION
 Private Package Constructs :Only declared in PACKAGE BODY
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PACKAGE
 There are 3 types of variables in a Package
 Local Variables: Only Exists within the PROCEDURE/FUNCTION defined in a PACKAGE
BODY.
 Local Static Variables: Defined within a Package BODY. Exists throughout the session
 Global Static Variables: Defined in the Package SPECIFICATION & can be accessed
outside body.
 The Package BODY contains all the code bodies for all the procedures and functions named in
the Package SPECIFICATION but the converse may not be TRUE.
 Before compiling the Package BODY, Package SPECIFICATION must be compiled.
 Package BODY has a dependency on the Package Specification but the converse is not true.
 Package may have ONE-TIME PROCEDURES, which is executed only once when you submit
the package body to Oracle for Compilation.
 If you are trying to call a SUB-PROGRAM which is not defined yet then, FORWARD
REFERENCE/DECLARATION is needed.
 You can OVERLOAD Procedures/Functions inside a PACKAGE as long as their formal
parameters differ in Number, Order or Data-type Family.
 You can not Overload 2 Sub-Programs if their parameters differ only in NAME or MODE.
 You can not Overload 2 Sub-Programs based on their RETURN TYPE only.
 For OVERLOADED Sub-Programs, the PRAGMA RESTRICT_REFERENCES applied to the
nearest definition prior to the PRAGMA.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PACKAGE
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE Journal_Entries IS
g_s_var1 Number(2); --Global Static Variable
PROCEDURE Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date VARCHAR2);
PROCEDURE Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date INT); --Overload Journalize
PRAGMA RESTRICT_REFERENCES(Journalize,RNDS) --Applies to Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date INT)
END Journal_Entries;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY Journal_Entries IS
l_s_var1 Number(2); --Local Static Variable.
PROCEDURE Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date INT); --Forward Declaration
PROCEDURE Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date VARCHAR2) IS
l_var1 Number(2); --Local Variable.
BEGIN
INSERT INTO Journal VALUES (amount, TO_DATE(trans_date,’J’), l_s_var1);
Journalize(12,2030);
END Journalize;
PROCEDURE Journalize(amount REAL, trans_date INT) IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO Journal VALUES(amount,trans_date, g_s_var1);
END Journalize;
BEGIN --One-Time Procedure
l_s_var1 :=2;
g_s_var1 :=l_s_var1;
--Assign value to local and global Static Variables.
END Journal_Entries;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
ERROR HANDLING IN PL/SQL
 Error in PL/SQL is called EXCEPTION also.
 When an ERROR occurs an EXCEPTION is raised, then normal execution stops and control transfers to the
Exception Handling part of PL/SQL
 SYNTAX : WHEN <Exception Name> [OR <Exception Name> …] THEN <Sequence Of Statements>
 Exceptions are of 2 types
 Pre-Defined Exception (System Defined Exceptions & Internal Exceptions (Raised Implicitly))
 User-Defined Exception (Declare Exception & Raise Exception Explicitly)
 Main advantages of Using EXCEPTION are
 Eliminates needs to code multiple checks
 Improves readability
 System defined exceptions (NO_DATA_FOUND, DEVIDE_BY_ZERO etc..) are raised internally or can be caught
using PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT.
 Exceptions ate caught inside Exception Handler Block.
 One Pre-Defined handler inside the block.
 Sometimes it is Exception called OTHERS is used to handle all errors not handled in the block, which must be
the last exception necessary to know what error has exactly occurred. Oracle provides 2 functions SQLCODE
(Numeric) and SQLERRM (Character) to solve it.
 Same exceptions can not be declared twice in the same block.
 Exceptions declared inside a block are considered local to that block and global to all it’s sub-blocks.
 Globally defined excns are referred inside a sub-block using the syntax as <Block_Level.Exceptn_Name).
 By itself the RAISE statement simply re-raises the current exception.
 If RAISE does not have an argument, then current exception is propagated to enclosing block.
 When an exception handler completes, processing of clock terminates.
 Any Oracle ERROR raise an exception automatically. Some of the more common ones have names.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
DECLARE
myException Exception; --Declared User Defined Exception
empNo VARCHAR2(5);
BEGIN
SELECT Emp_No INTO empNo FROM Emp WHERE ename = ‘BLAKE’;
IF empNo = ‘99999’ THEN
RAISE myException; --Raise User Defined Exception
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN myException THEN
dbms_output.put_line(‘INVALID EMPLOYEE…’);
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line(‘No Employee Found’);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
dbms_output.put_line(‘Oracle Error ‘||SQLERRM||’ And Error Message ‘||SQLERRM);
END;
Exception Propagation
Step #1. The Current block is searched for a handler. If not found then go to Step #2.
Step #2. If an enclosing block is found then it is searched for a handler.
Step #3. Step #1 and Step #2 are repeated until either there are no enclosing blocks or a handler is found.
 If there are no more enclosing blocks, the Exception is passed back to the calling environment.
 If a handler is found, it is executed. When done, the block in which the handler was found is terminated,
and control is passed to the enclosing block (if one exist) or to the environment (If there is no enclosing
block).

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
An Example Showing How ERROR propagates
BEGIN
……………
BEGIN
IF X = 1 THEN RAISE A; --Exception A is handled in the inner block and execution resumes in Outer block
ELSIF X = 2 THEN RAISE B; --Propagates to the first outer block with appropriate handler. Then handled in
outer block and control is passed back to the calling environment.
ELSE RAISE C; --Has no handler and will result in a Runtime unhandled Exception.
EXCEPTION
WHEN A THEN
…………………
END;
…………….
EXCEPTION Questions2 Questions3
WHEN B THEN
DECLARE DECLARE
………………… myExc1 Exception myExc1 Exception
END; myExc2 Exception BEGIN
Questions1.
BEGIN RAISE myExc1;
DECLARE
RAISE myExc1; EXCEPTION
Var1 Number(3) :=‘ABC’;
EXCEPTION WHEN myExc1
BEGIN
WHEN myExc1 THEN
……
THEN …………
EXCEPTION
RAISE myExc2; RAISE;
WHEN OTHERS THEN
WHEN myExc2 END;
……….
THEN Q. Can The blocks catch the Exception in above questions??
END;
…..
END;
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PRAGMA
 Is a Compiler Directive
 Conveys the Information To the compiler
 Processed at Compiled time not at the Run time.
 Do not affect meaning of a program
 There are 4 types of PRAGMAS
 EXCEPTION_INIT
 RESTRICT_REFERENCES
 AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION
 SERIALLY_REUSABLE
EXCEPTION_INIT
 Associates an Exception Name with an Oracle Error Number.
 Lets you refer to any internal exception by name and write a specific handler for it instead of using OTHERS
handler.
EXAMPLE
DECLARE
myException EXCEPTION;
h_Date DATE;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(myException, -01843) --Define The Exception
BEGIN
SELECT TO_DATE(‘14/14/2003’,’DD/MM/YYYY’) INTO h_Date FROM DUAL;
EXCEPTION
WHEN myException THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Defined Exception Caught Here…’);
WHEN OTHERE THEN dbms_output.put_line(‘Error ..’||SQLERRM||’ Error Message..’||SQLERRM);
END;
Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PRAGMA
RESTRICT_REFERENCES
 To be callable from SQL statements, a stored sub program must obey some “PURITY” rules.
 PURITY rules are meant to control side effects.
 RNDS :Read No Database State
 RNPS :Read No Package State
 WNDS :Write No Database State
 WNPS :Write No Package State
EXAMPLE
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE TestPkg IS
PROCEDURE PkgSelect;
END;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY TestPkg IS
PROCEDURE PkgSelect IS
Count Number(2);
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO Count FROM TEST;
dbms_output.put_line(‘Count Is…’||Count);
END;
END;
If the user does not allow to select data from database then Mention PRAGMA in Package specification as
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE TestPkg IS
PROCEDURE PkgSelect;
PRAGMA RESTRICt_REFERENCES(PkgSelect,RNDS);
END; --The Compilation of body will fail “PLS-00452:Subprogram “PKGSELECT” violates it’s ass. PRAGMA”

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
PRAGMA
AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION
 The AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION PRAGMA instructs the PL/SQL compiler to mark a routine as autonomous
(Independent)
 Started by another transaction, the main transaction. Let you suspend the main transaction, so SQL operations,
COMMIT or ROLLBACK these operations then resume the main transaction.
Example: Let a table TEST(n NUMBER(2)) and 2 Procedures Proc1 and Proc2 are there. Proc2 is called from Proc1
PROCEDURE Proc1 IS PROCEDURE Proc2 IS
BEGIN BEGIN
INSERT INTO TEST VALUES (12); INSERT INTO TEST VALUES(13);
Proc2; COMMIT;
INSERT INTO TEST VALUES (143); --Error END;
COMMIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK;
END;
When the Proc1 is Executed then the table contains the values as 12,13. But suppose user wants to rollback
the entire transaction in Proc1 if error comes but transaction in Proc2 to be committed I.e output should be
13 only , then define PRAGMA AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION in Proc2 as follows.
PROCEDURE Proc2 IS
PRAGMA AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION;
BEGIN
…………….
END;

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
TRIGGER
Application
DATABASE
INSERT INTO TRIGGERING EVENTS
EMP VALUES …. Table EMP
•INSERT
INSERT Trg.
•UPDATE
UPDATE EMP •DELETE

SET ……. UPDATE Trg.
TRIGGER TYPES
•BEFORE/AFTER
DELETE FROM •PER STATEMENT/ROW
DELETE Trg.
EMP WHERE ….
WHAT A TRIGGER IS
•A Trigger is a STORED PROCEDURE that fires implicitly when an INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE is issued against a Table.
•A Trigger is made up of 3 Parts
•A Triggering Event or Statement (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE)
•A Triggering Restriction (WHEN CLAUSE)
•A Triggering Action (PL/SQL BODY)
•Uses of Trigger
•Can be used to prevent invalid transactions.
•Enforce complex business rules
•Derive column values automatically
•Maintain replicate tables.
•Gather statistics on table access

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
TRIGGER
SYNTAX TO CREATE A TRIGGER
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER [schema.]Trigger_name
{ BEFORE / AFTER } --TRIGGER TYPE
{ DELETE {OR} / INSERT {OR} / UPDATE [OF COLUMN1,COLUMN2,…] } --TRIGGER EVENT/STATEMENT
ON [schema.]TABLE
[ REFERENCING {OLD AS old,NEW AS new } ]
[ FOR EACH ROW [WHEN <CONDITION>] ] --FOR EACH ROW is TRIGGER TYPE & WHEN is TRIGGER Restn.
<PL_SQL_BLOCK> --Trigger Action.
TYPES OF TRIGGER
 Row & Statement Trigger (Applicable to both TABLES and VIEWS)
 Before and After Trigger (Can not be used for Triggers created over VIEWS)
 INSTEAD-OF Trigger (Over Modifiable Views That can not be modified directly thru SQL DML stmnt)
 System Event & User Event Trigger (DATABASE Startup,Shutdown & USER Logon,Logoff)
Notes
 Types of a Trigger determines
 The “TIME” when the trigger fires
 BEFORE TRIGGER (Before The Triggering Action)
 AFTER TRIGGER (After The Triggering Action)
 INSTEAD-OF TRIGGER (Instead Of The Triggering Action)
 The “ITEM” the trigger fires on
 ROW TRIGGER (Once For Each Row Affected By The Triggering Statement)
 STATEMENT TRIGGER (Once For The Trigg. Statement Regardless Of No. Of Rows Affected)
 A TRIGGER can not select from or change a MUTATING table ( Currently being modified by DML Oprn)
 Each TABLE Can have UPTO 12 TRIGGERS in all.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
TRIGGER
Notes
The 12 Triggers that can be written over a Table are
INSERT
ROW
BEFORE
UPDATE
AFTER
STATEMENT
DELETE
 BEFORE STATEMENT trigger is used to initialize global variables.
 BEFORE ROW triggers are used to compute derived fields in new ROW.
 Besides the above 12 TRIGGERS another 2 triggers are there which are written over views. They are INSTEAD-
OF row Trigger and INSTEAD-OF statement Trigger.
 Except INSETAD-OF triggers, all triggers can be used only on TABLES. INSTEAD-OF triggers can be used only
on VIEWS.
 Database triggers are not stored in compiled form. Instead of writing the entire trigger logic in Database trigger,
write them in procedure(s). The procedure can then be called from Trigger using CALL statement which
improved performance considerably.
 If a trigger can fire on more than one type of DML operation, use pre-defined PL/SQL Boolean variables to
determine which caused the trigger to fire:
1. IF INSERTING 2. IF UPDATING [COLUMN_NAME,..] 3. IF DELETING
 If FOR EACH ROW Condition is there then it is ROW Type Trigger
 To refer to the old and new values of a column in row triggers, use the :OLD and :NEW prefixes: IF :NEW.sal < :
OLD.sal ...
 Values available in ROW TRIGGER ONLY. NEW and OLD values available for UPDATE only.
 The OLD value in INSERT and NEW value in DELETE is NULL.
 You can replace :NEW and :OLD with other co-relation names if desired (Use REFERENCE clause)
 COMMIIT & ROLLBACK can not be placed in Trigger action (Except for AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION)

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
TRIGGER
EXECUTION HIERARCHY OF TRIGGER
 Execute all BEFORE STATEMENT TRIGGERS that apply to the statement
 LOOP for each ROW affected by SQL statement
 Execute all BEFORE ROW TRIGGER that apply to the statement
 Lock and change row and perform INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT checking
 Execute all AFTER ROW TRIGGER that apply to the statement
 Complete DEFERRED INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT checking
 Execute all AFTER STATEMENT TRIGGERS.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER salary_check
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF sal, job ON Employee FOR EACH ROW WHEN (NEW.job <> 'PRESIDENT')
DECLARE
minsal NUMBER;
maxsal NUMBER;
BEGIN
IF INSERTING OR UPDATING THEN
SELECT Min_Salary, Max_Salary INTO minsal, maxsal FROM sal_guide WHERE job = :NEW.JOB;
IF (:NEW.sal < minsal OR :NEW.sal > maxsal ) THEN /* If salary below min or above max generate an error */
raise_application_error (-20500,'Salary' || :NEW.sal || 'out of range for job'|| :NEW.job || 'for ’||:NEW.emp);
END IF;
END IF;
END; /* End Of Trigger*/
 Difference between Triggers and Procedures is that Triggers can not take PARAMETERS whereas
PROCEDURES can take. PROCEDURE is executed EXPLICITLY whereas TRIGGER is IMPLICITLY. Another
difference is DECLARE keyword is required in TRIGGER to declare variables.

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CURSOR
 A work area to execute SQL statements and store processing information.
 Every SQL DML statement processed by PL/SQL has an associated CURSOR.
 Two Types of CURSORS
 1. EXPLICIT :Declared explicitly along with other identifiers to be used in the block.
 Multiple row SELECT Statements
 2. IMPLICIT (SQL Cursor) :Declared by PL/SQL implicitly for all DML statement and single ROW queries.
 All INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and SELECT ….INTO Statements
EXPLICIT CURSOR USE
Step1 : Declare the CURSOR
DECLARE
CURSOR <cursor name> IS <regular select: statement>;
 The <regular select statement> must NOT include the INTO clause.
 Declared cursors are scoped just like variables.
Step2: Open the CURSOR OPEN <Cursor_Name) OR FOR Cursor_Variable IN <Cursor_Name)
-- Executes the query and identifies the result set consisting of all the rows that meet the query criteria.
Step3: Fetch data from the CURSOR. FETCH <Cursor_Name) INTO <Var1,Var2..> OR Cursor_Variable.<Var1,Var2…>
-- fetches values to the variable and increments the pointer to the next value.
 The first column gets assigned to Var1, the second assigned Var2, etc.
Step4: Close The CURSOR.
CLOSE <cursor name>; -- closes the cursor , and the result set becomes unidentified
 Once a cursor is closed ,it can be reopened . Any other operation on a closed cursor raises
predefined exception INVALID_CURSOR.
Note: There are TWO ways to Open ,Processing and Close a Cursor. They are
1. OPEN - FETCH - CLOSE 2. FOR LOOP

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle
CURSOR
Example (Using OPEN-FETCH-CLOSE) Using FOR LOOP
DECLARE DECLARE
V_E_No E_MST.E_No%TYPE; CURSOR C1 IS
V_E_Name E_MST.E_Name%TYPE; SELECT E_No, E_Name
CURSOR C1 IS FROM E_MST;
SELECT E_No,E_Name BEGIN
FROM E_MST; FOR I IN C1
BEGIN LOOP
OPEN C1; INSERT INTO TEMP(No, Name)
LOOP VALUES(I.E_No,I.E_Name);
FETCH C1 INTO V_E_No,V_E_Name; END LOOP;
EXIT WHEN C1%NOTFOUND; END;
INSERT INTO TEMP(No, Name)
VALUES(V_E_No,V_E_Name); Note. Here END LOOP automatically closes the
END LOOP; CURSOR.
CLOSE C1;
END;
EXPLICIT CURSOR ATTRIBUTES
 %NOTFOUND :Returns BOOLEAN Value. TRUE if there are no more rows to be fetched.
 %FOUND :Returns BOOLEAN Value. FALSE if there are no more rows to be fetched.
 %ISOPEN :Returns BOOLEAN Value. TRUE if the Cursor is already open.
 %ROWCOUNT :Returns NUMERIC Value. No. Of Rows returned by the cursor.
IMPLICIT CURSOR ATTRIBUTES
 SQL%NOTFOUND,SQL%FOUND,SQL%ROWCOUNT and SQL%ISOPEN(Always Evaluate To False)

Title
Title Overview
Overview on
on Oracle
Oracle

Introduction To SQL: Tata Consultancy Services

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Introduction To SQL: Tata Consultancy Services

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

INTRODUCTION TO SQL

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

What is a relational database?

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 Data definition language (DDL) statements enable you to perform these

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 The create table statement is used to create a new table.

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 create table employee

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 ALTER TABLE [schema.] table

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 Primary Key Constraint

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 Explicitly define a condition.

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

SELECT ENGLISH, ENGLISH+ 100 FROM TEST;

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

Returns char1, right-padded to length n with sequence in char2

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

SELECT TRANSLATE ('ABC123ABC123','B3','X0') "Translate" FROM DUAL;

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 DECODE(expr, search1, result1, [search2, result2,]...[default])

SELECT DECODE(refund, 'Y', amount * -1, amount) FROM ...

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

INSERT INTO swvterm VALUES (20008,'Fall Semester 2000', TO_DATE('010197','DDMMYY'));

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 All group functions, except COUNT, ignore null values

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

Operator Function Examples

< Less than ...WHERE sat_math < 450

SELECT ROWNUM, pidm, last_name FROM swriden WHERE ROWNUM < 5;

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 CURRVAL and NEXTVAL

CURRVAL returns the current value of a sequence

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

 SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE empno = eno.CURRVAL;

 UPDATE emp SET empno = eno.NEXTVAL WHERE empno = 7655 ;

 values contain information necessary to locate a row.

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

SELECT last_name||', '||first_name||' '||mi NAME,street_line1||' '||city||', '||stat_code||' '||

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

GRANT object_priv [ALL] [(column)] ON [schema.] object TO user [PUBLIC]

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES

Example : CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW swvsusp AS SELECT * FROM swrstdn

TATA CONSULTANCY SERVICES