Chapter 1-Semiconductor Materials

Chapter 1
Semiconductor Materials and

Diodes
Properties
2-3
Electronics ECE 1231
Classification of Materials
Classification according to the way materials react to the current
when a voltage is applied across them:

Insulators
Materials with very high resistance
Oppose the flow of current (mica, rubber)

Conductors
Materials with very low resistance
Allow the current to flow easily (copper, aluminum)

Semiconductors
Neither good conductors nor insulators (silicon, germanium)
Can be controlled to either insulators by increasing their
resistance or conductors by decreasing their resistance
2-4
Semiconductor Materials
Electronic devices are fabricated by using
semiconductor along with conductors and insulators.

Silicon is the most common semiconductor material
used for devices and integrated circuits.

Other semiconductor materials are used for specialized
applications.
For example, gallium arsenide and related compounds
are used for very high speed devices and optical devices.
2-5
Properties
An atom is composed of a nucleus, which contains positively
charged protons and neutral neutrons, and negatively charged
electrons that orbit the nucleus.
The electrons are
distributed in various shell
at different distances from
the nucleus, and electron
energy increases as shell
radius increases.

Electrons in the outermost
shell are called valence
electrons.
Atomic structure:
(a) Germanium
(b) Silicon
2-6
Properties
A portion of the periodic
table in which the more
common semiconductors
are found

Elemental Semiconductors
Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are in group IV.

Compound Semiconductor
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is a group III-V.
2-7
Properties
This figure shows five noninteracting silicon
atoms, with four valence electrons of each
atom shown as dashed lines emanating
from the atom
Atoms come into close proximity to each
other, the valence electrons interact to
form a crystal.

The valence electrons are shared
between atoms, forming what are called
covalent bonds.
This figure is a two-dimensional
representative of the lattice formed by five
silicon atoms
2-8
Properties
E
c
E
v
E
g
Conduction band
Valence band
Forbidden
bandgap
In order to break the covalent bond,
valence electron must gain a minimum
energy, E
g
, called the bandgap energy
and becomes a free electron.

The energy E
v
is the maximum energy of
the valence energy band and the energy
E
c
is the minimum energy of the
conduction energy band. The bandgap
energy E
g
is the difference between E
c
and
E
v
, and the region between these two
energies is called the forbidden bandgap.
2-9
Energy Gaps and Energy Levels
Electrons can jump from one level
to another if they absorb the
enough energy to make the
difference between their level and
the level they are jumping to.
2-10
Properties
The net charge of the material is neutral. If a negative charged
electron breaks its covalent bond and moves away from its
original position, a positively charged empty state is created at
that position. This positively charged particle is called a hole.

In semiconductor, two types of charged particles contribute to the
current: the negatively charged free electron and the positively
charged hole.
A two-dimensional representation
of the silicon crystal showing the
movement of positively charged
empty state
2-11
Intrinsic Semiconductor
A single-crystal semiconductor material with no other types of
atoms within the crystal.

The densities of electrons and holes are equal.

The notation n
i
is used as intrinsic carrier concentration for
the concentration of the free electrons as well as that of the
hole:

B = a coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material
E
g
= the bandgap energy (eV)
T = the temperature (K)
k = Boltzmanns constant (86 x 10
-6
eV/K)
2-12
The values of B and E
g
for several semiconductor materials:
Example:
Calculate the intrinsic carrier
concentration in silicon
at T = 300 K.
2-13
Extrinsic Semiconductor
Impurity with five valence electrons is
diffused in silicon are called donor
atoms.
The phosphorous atom is called a donor impurity, since it
donates an electron that is free to move.
When a donor impurity is added, free electrons are created
without generating holes. This process is called doping.
A semiconductor that contains donor impurity is called n-type
semiconductor.
For example, when a phosphorous atom
diffused in a silicon atom:
Four of its valence electrons are used to
satisfy the covalent bond requirements.
The fifth valence electron is free to move.
2-14
Impurity with three valence electrons
is diffused in silicon are called
acceptor atoms.
The boron atom is called an acceptor impurity, since it
accepts a valence electron.
Acceptor atoms lead to creation of holes without electrons
being generated. This process is also called doping.
A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity is called
p-type semiconductor.
For example, when a boron atom
replaces for a silicon atom:
Its three valence electrons are used to
satisfy the covalent bond for three.
This leaves one bond position open.
2-15
The materials containing impurity atoms are called extrinsic
semiconductors, or doped semiconductors.

The doping process, which allows to control the
concentrations of free electronics and holes, determines the
conductivity and currents in the materials.

The relation between the electron and hole concentrations in
thermal equilibrium:

n
o
= the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons
p
o
= the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes
n
i
= the intrinsic carrier concentration
2-16
At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free
electron to the semiconductor.

If the donor concentration N
d
is much larger than the intrinsic
concentration, approximately:

Then, the hole concentration:
2-17
Similarly, at room temperature, each acceptor atom accepts a
valence electron, creating a hole.

If the acceptor concentration N
a
is much larger than the
intrinsic concentration, approximately:

Then, the electron concentration:
2-18
Example
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.

Consider silicon at T = 300 K doped with phosphorous at a
concentration of N
d
= 10
16
cm
-3
and n
i
= 1.5 x 10
10
cm
-3
.

2-19
Drift and Diffusion Currents
Current
Generated by the movement of charged particles
(negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes).

Carriers
The charged electrons and holes are referred to as carriers

The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes
move in a semiconductor:

Drift - the movement caused by electric field.
Diffusion - the flow caused by variations in the concentration.
2-20
Drift Current Density (n-type semiconductor)
An electric field E applied to n-type semiconductor with a
large number of free electrons.
Produces a force on the electrons in the opposite direction,
because of the electrons negative charge.
The electrons acquire a drift velocity (in cm/s):

n
= a constant called electron mobility (cm
2
/ V-s)
(typically 1350 cm
2
/ V-s for low-doped silicon)

The electron drift produces a drift
current density (A/cm
2
):

n = the electron concentration (#/cm
3
)
e = the magnitude of the electronic charge
2-21
Drift Current Density (p-type semiconductor)
An electric field E applied to p-type semiconductor with a
large number of holes.
Produces a force on the holes in the same direction, because of
the positive charge on the holes.
The holes acquire a drift velocity (in cm/s):

p
= a constant called hole mobility (cm
2
/ V-s)
(typically 480 cm
2
/ V-s for low doped silicon)

The hole drift produces a drift
current density (A/cm
2
):

p = the hole concentration (#/cm
3
)
2-22
Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and
holes, the total drift current density is the sum of the
electron and hole components:

where

= the conductivity of the semiconductor (-cm)
-1

= 1/, the resistivity of the semiconductor (-cm)
The conductivity is related to the concentration of electrons
and holes
2-23
Diffusion Current Density
The basic diffusion process
Flow of particles from a region of high-concentration to a
region of low-concentration.
The diffusion of electrons produces a flow of electrons in the
negative x direction.
The conventional current direction is in the positive x direction.

The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons:

J
n
= eD
n
dn/dx

dn/dx = gradient of the electron concentration
D
n
= the electron diffusion coefficient
2-24
The diffusion of holes from a high-concentration region to a
low-concentration region:
Produces a flow of holes in the negative x direction.
The conventional current direction is in the negative x direction.

The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes:

J
p
= - eD
p
dp/dx

dp/dx = gradient of the hole concentration
D
p
= the hole diffusion coefficient
2-25
Excess Carriers
Valence electrons may acquire sufficient energy to break the
covalent bond.
Become free electrons.
Both electron and hole are produced.
Generating an electron-hole pair.
The additional electrons and holes are called excess
electrons and excess holes.
A free electron may recombine with a hole, in a process called
electron-hole recombination.

n
o
= the thermal equilibrium concentrations of electrons
p
o
= the thermal equilibrium concentrations of holes
n = the excess electron concentrations
p = the excess hole concentrations
2-26
Electron-Hole Pair:
When an electron
jumps from the
valence shell to the
conduction band, it
leaves a hole in
the covalent bond.
This action creates
an electron-hole
pair.
Recombination:
Within a short time
an electron in the
conduction band
will give up its
energy and fall into
one of the valence
shell holes in the
covalent band.
Properties
The pn Junction
2-28
n-type versus p-type
n-type materials make the Silicon (or Germanium) atoms more negative.
In n-type semiconductor the electrons are called the majority carriers and
holes are the minority carriers.

p-type materials make the Silicon (or Germanium) atoms more positive.
In p-type semiconductor the holes are called the majority carriers and
electrons are the minority carriers.
2-29
The Equilibrium pn Junction
Join n-type and p-type doped Silicon (or Germanium) to form a p-n junction.
It shows respective p-type and
n-type doping concentrations,
assuming uniform doping, and
minority carrier concentrations,
assuming thermal equilibrium.
2-30
Diffusion of hole from p-region into n-region & electron from n-region into p-region.
If no voltage applied, diffusion of holes and electrons must eventually cease.

Direction of induced electric field repels further diffusion of holes and electrons.
Thermal equilibrium occurs when the force produced by the electric filed and force
produced by the density gradient exactly balance.
Modest space-charge region or depletion region formed at pn junction.
2-31
Potential difference across the depletion region is called the
built-in potential barrier, or built-in voltage:

V
T
= kT/e
k = Boltzmanns constant
T = absolute temperature
N
a
= the net acceptor concentration in the p-region
N
d
= the net donor concentration in the n-region

V
T
= thermal voltage, approximately 0.026 V at temp, T = 300 K
2-32
Example
Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn junction.

Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, doped
N
a
= 10
16
cm
-3
in the p-region, N
d
= 10
17
cm
-3
in the
n-region and n
i
= 1.5 x 10
10
cm
-3
.

Solution
2-33
Reverse-Biased pn Junction
Positive voltage is applied to the n-region of the pn junction.
Applied voltage V
R
induces an applied electric field E
A
.
Direction of the applied field is the same as that of the E-field in
the space-charge region.
Magnitude of the electric field in the space-charge region
increases above the thermal equilibrium value.
Increased electric field holds back the holes in the p-region and
the electrons in the n-region.
No current across the pn junction.
This applied voltage polarity is
called reverse bias.
Reverse-bias voltage increases,
space-charge width W increases.
2-34
Additional positive and negative charges induced in the
space-charge region with increasing in reverse-bias voltage.
Capacitance is associated with the pn junction when a
reverse-bias voltage is applied.
This junction capacitance, or depletion layer capacitance:

C
jo
= the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage
2-35
Example
Calculate the junction capacitance of a pn junction.
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K, with doping
concentrations of N
a
= 10
16
cm
-3
and N
d
= 10
15
cm
-3
.
Assume that
n
i
= 1.5 x 10
10
cm
-3

and C
jo
= 0.5 pF.

Calculate the junction
capacitance C
j
at V
R
= 1 V and V
R
= 5 V.
*Capacitance decreases as the
reverse-bias voltage increases.
2-36
Forward-Biased pn Junction
Positive voltage v
D
is applied to the p-region of the pn junction.
The potential barrier decreases.
Direction of the applied electric field E
A
is the opposite as that of
the E-field in the space-charge region.
The net result is that the electric field in the space-charge region
lower than the thermal equilibrium value.
Majority carrier electrons from the n-region diffuse into p-region
and the majority carrier holes from
the p-region diffuse into n-region.
Creating current in the pn junction.
This applied voltage polarity is
called forward bias.
v
D
must always be less than V
bi
.
2-37
Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
The theoretical relationship between voltage and current in the
pn junction:

I
S
= the reverse-bias saturation current (for silicon 10
-15
to 10
-13
A)
V
T
= the thermal voltage (0.026 V at room temperature)
n = the emission coefficient (1 n 2)

This pn junction, with nonlinear rectifying current characteristics,
is called a pn junction doide.
2-38
Ideal Current-Voltage Relationship
Example
Determine the current in a pn junction diode.
Consider a pn junction at T = 300 K in which I
S
= 10
-14
A and n = 1. Find
the diode current for v
D
= +0.70 V and v
D
= -0.70 V.
2-39
pn Junction Diode
The basic pn junction diode circuit symbol, and conventional
current direction and voltage polarity.

Ideal I-V characteristics of a pn
junction diode.
The diode current is an exponential
function of diode voltage in the
forward-bias region.
The current is very nearly zero in
the reverse-bias region.
The pn junction diode is a nonlinear
electronic device.
2-40
pn Junction Diode
Actual Diode
Characteristics:
2-41
pn Junction Diode
Temperature Effects on Semiconductor Materials
The conductivity of semiconductor is directly proportional to temperature.
Means that an increase in temp (T) will cause an increase in conductance (C)
and current (I).
Semiconductor
materials has a
negative temp
coefficient of
resistance which
means as temp
increases (T),
their resistance
decreases (R).
2-42
pn Junction Diode
Temperature Effects
Both I
S
and V
T
are functions of temperature.
The diode characteristics vary with temperature.
For silicon diodes, the change
is approximately 2 mV/
o
C.
Forward-biased pn junction
characteristics versus temperature.
The required diode voltage to
produce a given current decreases
with an increase in temperature.
2-43
Diode Circuits: DC Analysis and Models
The ideal Diode
The I -V characteristics of the ideal diode.
Equivalent circuit in the conducting
state (a short circuit)
Equivalent circuit under reverse bias
(an open circuit)
2-44
Example
Consider a circuit with a dc voltage V
PS

applied across a resistor and a diode.
Applying KVL, we can write,

or,

The diode voltage V
D
and current I
D
are
related by the ideal diode equation:
(I
S
is assumed to be known for a particular diode)
Equation contains only one unknown, V
D
:
2-45
Question
Determine the diode voltage and current
for the circuit.
Consider I
S
= 10
-13
A.

or,

and
2-46
Load Line
The Load Line plots all possible
current (I
D
) conditions for all voltages
applied to the diode (V
D
) in a given
circuit. V
PS
/R is the maximum I
D
and
V
PS
is the maximum V
D
.
Where the Load Line and the
Characteristic Curve intersect, the
point is referred as the quiescent
point or Q-point, which specifies a
particular I
D
and V
D
for a given circuit.
2-47
Piecewise Linear Model

For V
D
V
, assume a straight-line
approximation whose slope is 1/r
f
.

V
= turn on voltage
r
f
= forward diode resistance

For V
D
< V
, assume a straight-line
approximation parallel with the V
D

axis at the zero current level.
Components of the piecewise-
linear equivalent circuit
2-48
Diode piecewise equivalent circuit
in the on condition when V
D
V

Diode piecewise equivalent circuit
in the off condition when V
D
< V

The piecewise linear diode
characteristics by assuming r
f
= 0

2-49
Example
Determine the diode voltage and current
using a piecewise linear model.

Assume piecewise linear diode parameters of
V
f
= 0.6 V and r
f
= 10 .

Solution:
The diode current is determined by:
2-50
Diode Circuits: AC Equivalent Circuit
Sinusoidal Analysis
The total input voltage v
I
= dc V
PS
+ ac v
i
i
D
= I
DQ
+ i
d
v
D
= V
DQ
+ v
d

I
DQ
and V
DQ
are the dc
quiescent
diode current
and voltage
respectively.
2-51
Current-voltage Relation

The relation between the diode current and
voltage can be written as:

V
DQ
= dc quiescent voltage
v
d
= ac component
The -1 term in the equation is neglected.

The equation can be written as:
If v
d
<< V
T
, the equation can be
expanded into linear series as:

The quiescent diode current as:
2-52

or,

g
d
= diode small signal incremental
conductance or diffusion conductance.
r
d
= diode small signal incremental
resistance or diffusion resistance.

or,
Current-voltage Relation

The diode current voltage relationship can
then be written as:

i
d
= ac component

The relationship between the ac components
of the diode voltage and current is then:
2-53
Example
Analyze the circuit (by determining V
O
& v
o
).

Assume circuit and diode parameters of
V
PS
= 5 V, R = 5 k, V
= 0.6 V & v
i
= 0.1 sin t (V)
2-54

Analyze the circuit (by determining V
O
& v
o
).

Assume circuit and diode parameters of
V
PS
= 5 V, R = 5 k, V
= 0.6 V & v
i
= 0.1 sin t (V)
2-55
Frequency Response

If the frequency of the ac input signal increases, the diffusion capacitance
associated with forward-biased pn junction becomes important.
The diffusion capacitance is the change in the stored minority carrier charge
that caused by a change in the voltage, or

The diffusion capacitance C
d

is normally much larger than
the junction capacitance C
j
,
because of the magnitude of
the changes involved.
2-56
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit

The small-signal equivalent circuit of the forward-biased pn junction is
developed partially from the equation for the admittance, which is given by:

g
d
= the diffusion conductance
C
d
= the diffusion capacitance
Simplified version small-signal
equivalent circuit of the diode
Complete circuit of small-signal
equivalent circuit of the diode
2-57
Light-Emitting Diode
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
A semiconductor device that produces light when an electrical current or voltage is
applied to its terminal.
Because of the recombination of electrons and holes some energy will be given off.
1) Si and Ge energy will emitted in the form of heat.
2) Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) and (GaP) will emit the energy in form of
photons of light.
2-58
The LED V-I Characteristic Curve
2-59
Zener Diode
Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a pn junction, the electric field in
the space-charge region increases.
The electric field may become large enough that covalent bonds are broken
and electron-hole pairs are created.
Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes
are swept into the p-region by the electric field,
generating a large reverse bias current. This
phenomenon is called breakdown.
The reverse-bias current created by breakdown
mechanism is limited only by the external circuit.
If the current is not sufficiently limited, a large
power can be dissipated in the junction that may
damage the device and cause burnout.

2-60
Breakdown Voltage
Avalanche Breakdown
The most common breakdown mechanism is called avalanche breakdown.
It occurs when carriers crossing the space-charge
region gain sufficient kinetic energy from the high
electric field to be able to break covalent bonds
during a collision process.
The generated electron-hole pairs can themselves
be involved in a collusion process generating
additional electron-hole pairs, thus the avalanche
process.
The breakdown voltage is a function of the doping
concentrations in the n- and p-region of the pn
junction.
Large doping concentrations result in smaller
break-down voltage.

2-61
Breakdown Voltage
Zener Breakdown
A second breakdown mechanism is called zener breakdown.
It is a result of tunneling of carriers across the
junction.
This effect is prominent at very high doping
concentrations and results in breakdown voltage
less than 5 V.
The voltage at which breakdown occurs is usually
in the range of 50 to 200 V for discrete devices.
A pn junction is usually rated in terms of its peak
inverse voltage or PIV.
The PIV of a diode must never be exceeded in
circuit operation if reverse breakdown is to be
avoided.

2-62
Zener Diode
Diodes are fabricated with a specifically design breakdown voltage and are
designed to operate in the breakdown region. These diodes are called Zener
diodes. Circuit symbol of the Zener diode:
The large current that may exist at breakdown
can cause heating effects and catastrophic failure
of the diode due to the large power dissipated in
the device.
Diodes can be operated in the breakdown region
by limiting the current to a value within the
capacities of the device.
Such a diode can be used as a constant-voltage
reference in a circuit.

Chapter 1-Semiconductor Materials

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Chapter 1-Semiconductor Materials

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Chapter 1

Semiconductor Materials and

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