Lecture 9

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p. 1
Postacademic Course on
Telecommunications
Module-3 Transmission Marc Moonen
Lecture-9 CDMA K.U.Leuven/ESAT-SISTA
Module-3 : Transmission

Lecture-9 (18/5/00)
Marc Moonen
Dept. E.E./ESAT, K.U.Leuven
marc.moonen@esat.kuleuven.ac.be
www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/sista/~moonen/

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p. 2
Lecture-9 CDMA K.U.Leuven-ESAT/SISTA
Lecture 9 : CDMA -Overview
Multiple Access Techniques
TDMA
FDMA
CDMA : Frequency hopping vs. direct sequence CDMA
SDMA : See also Lecture-10
DS-CDMA
Single-user (matched filter) receiver, RAKE receiver
Code design, synchronization, near-far problem,..
Multi-user detection based CDMA Receivers
CDMA/DMT combined schemes
Telecommunications
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CDMA Introduction
Pioneer CDMA era:
1949- : first contributions by Pierce, Shannon,
1956 : `RAKE patent (Price & Green)
1970- : military CDMA systems
Narrow-band CDMA era:
1978- : CDMA for cellular applications
1993 : IS-95 standard (Qualcomm)
1996- : IS-95 commercial operation (US, Korea, )
Wide-band CDMA era:
1995- : Research programs in Europe, USA, Japan
2000- : Commercial operation UMTS/IMT2000
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CDMA Introduction
1st generation cellular/mobile:
-analog transmission
-speech services
-AMPS (US), TACS (UK), NMT (Scandinavia), NTT (Japan)
2nd generation cellular/mobile:
-digital transmission
-speech & data services
-IS-136/D-AMPS (US), GSM, PDC, IS-95
3rd generation cellular/mobile:
-higher bit-rates, multiple services, etc.
-wide-band CDMA air interface
-UMTS (ETSI), IMT2000 (ITU)
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Multiple Access Schemes : allow different
users to access/share the same
communication channel.
Underlying principle = òrthogonality

}
+

=
=
=
) ( if 0
if zero - non
) ( ). (
j i
j i
t s t s
j i
sent signal for user j
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p. 6
Multiple Access Schemes :
Frequency Division (FDMA)
Time Division (TDMA)
Code Division (CDMA)
- Frequency Hopping (FH-CDMA)
- Direct Sequence (DS-CDMA)
Space Division (SDMA) see Lecture-10

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Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Different users use passband modulation (Lecture-3) with
different carrier frequencies
Different frequency bands separated by guard bands
(-> òrthogonality)

PS: Compare with DMT/OFDM (Lecture-7/8).
PPS: DMT/OFDM sometimes also used as MA technique.
:
user-1
user-2
user-M
CHANNEL
:
out-1
out-2
out-M
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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Different users use different time slots in one and the same
communication channel
Different time slots separated by guard times
(->òrthogonality)

:
user-1
user-2
user-M
CHANNEL
:
out-1
out-2
out-M
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p. 9

TDMA/FDMA
Example GSM :
- 125 frequency channels (in 900MHz band)
- 8 users time-multiplexed in each channel
- neighboring cells use different frequency bands to avoid
inter-cell interference (hence actual number of frequency
bands in a cell 7 times lower)

frequency
time
FDMA
frequency
time
TDMA
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p. 10
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Frequency Hopping (FH-CDMA) :
- Carrier frequency for user-i is changed for each time slot,
based on periodic pseudo-random code sequence for user-i.
- `Fast versus `slow frequency hopped systems
`Fast = several hops over one symbol period
`Slow =several symbols transmitted during one hop
Time Hopping (TH-CDMA) :
- Periodic pseudo-random code sequence for user-i defines
transmission moment for user-i.

FH-CDMA and TH-CDMA not further addressed here...
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Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) :

Relevance : Third Generation wide-band CDMA proposals
frequency
time
CDMA
code
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Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA) :
-Each user-i is assigned a periodic (period N) pseudo-random
code sequence

-For each symbol (k-th symbol for user-i), a `chip
sequence is transmitted

-Mostly binary codes ( ) with BPSK/QPSK symbols
-Multiple access based on code-orthogonality (see below)
i
k
a
{ } 1 , 1 + e
i
l
c
i
N
i i i
c c c c ,..., , ,
3 2 1
i
N
i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
c a c a c a c a . ,..., . , . , .
3 2 1
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Direct Sequence CDMA (DS-CDMA)

Transmission : Example :

transmitted symbols +1 -1 -1 +1
code sequence +1,+1,-1
transmitted chips +1,+1,-1, -1,-1,+1, -1,-1,+1, +1,+1,-1

N = `spreading factor = # chips per symbol
Symbol rate = fs, `chip rate = fc = N.fs

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Transmission block scheme:

code-multiplication may be viewed as (digital) filtering
operation, with FIR transmit filter
Chip sequence is fed into (analog) transmit filter p(t) for
transmission (not shown) (see Lecture-3)
1 1
2 1
. ... . ) (
+
+ + + =
N i
N
i i
z c z c c z C
i i i i
c c c c
4 3 2 1
, , ,
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
,... . , . , . , . , . , .
2 1 1 1 4 3 2 1
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
c a c a c a c a c a c a
+ +
N
,... 0 , 0 , 0 , , 0 , 0 , 0 ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
C(z)
N-fold upsampling
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Reception : if received signal = transmitted chip sequence,
multiply chips with (synchronized) code sequence + sum.
Example :
transmitted symbols +1 -1 -1 +1
code sequence +1,+1,-1
transmitted chips +1,+1,-1, -1,-1,+1, -1,-1,+1, +1,+1,-1
received chips +1,+1,-1, -1,-1,+1, -1,-1,+1, +1,+1,-1
+1,+1,-1

received symbols +1 -1 -1 +1

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Reception block scheme: basic operation is `matched filter
+ downsampling (=symbol-rate sampling) (see Lecture-3)

,... . , . , . , . , . , .
2 1 1 1 4 3 2 1
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
i i
k
+ +
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
,*,*,*,... . ,*,*,*, .
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
o o
C(1/z)
N-fold downsampling
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
3
1
2
2
1
3 4
3
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) . . . .( )
1
(
i i i i i i i i
c c c c z c z c z c c z
z
C + + + = + + + =

o
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p. 17
Multiple access based on code orthogonality

,... . , . , . , . , . , .
2 1 1 1 4 3 2 1
j j
k
j j
k
j j
k
j j
k
j j
k
j j
k
+ +
,... 0 , 0
N
,*,*,*,... . 0 ,*,*,*, . 0
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
C(1/z)
N-fold downsampling
) . . . .( )
1
(
3
1
2
2
1
3 4
3
+ + + = z c z c z c c z
z
C
i i i i
) ( 0 . ... . .
2 2 1 1
j i c c c c c c
i
N
j
N
i j i j
= = + + + = |
chip sequence user-j
code sequence user-i
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Need for code synchronization (acquisition+tracking)
procedure : not addressed here.
Reception for
-Asynchronous CDMA
-Dispersive channel (hence inter-symbol and/or inter-
chip-interference (ISI/ICI), multi-user-interference (MUI))
needs more refined techniques.see below
PS : here we only consider `short codes
1 code period for each symbol
in practice also `long codes (`scrambling codes)
code period >> symbol period
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CDMA
PS : Direct sequence spreading and frequency hopping are `Spread
Spectrum (SS) techniques, where transmission bandwidth for every
signal is much larger than information bandwidth. SS Techniques
originally developed for military radar and communication systems
because of robustness against (narrow band) jamming.
PS: CDMA application examples :
- IS-95 cellular telephony (Qualcomm)
- IMT2000-UMTS (`wideband CDMA)
- IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs
- GPS
- cable modems, power line comms, .
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Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
- Different users are separated based on spatial properties

- Hence different users can use the same time slots and/or
frequencies, or the same codes (= SDMA on top of
TDMA/FDMA or CDMA)

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Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
- Signal separation based on
-Beamforming techniques (`1G)
-Advanced (multi-path) channel modeling & signal
processing techniques
- May be viewed as `dynamic sectorization
(currently only `static sectorization used (e.g. GSM), based
on directional antennas)
- See Lecture-10
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p. 22
DS-CDMA
General CDMA setup, with several users + noise :

Code orthogonality is

Receiver structure a la page 13 (with code orthogonality)
sufficient/optimal ?
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
) (z H
i
channel
noise
N
) (z C
j
) (z H
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
received signal
) ( 0 . ... . .
2 2 1 1
j i c c c c c c
i
N
j
N
i j i j
= = + + + = |
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p. 23
DS-CDMA : Single-User Receiver
`Single-user (`matched filter) receiver :

Aim is to suppress inter-symbol-interference (ISI for user-
of-interest i) and multi-user interference (from other users)
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
) (z H
i
channel
) (z H
j
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
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p. 24
`Single-user (`matched filter) receiver : case-1

if Hi(z)=Hj(z)=1 (no channel dispersion & synchronous)
- MUI=0 because of code-orthogonality
- ISI=0 because no channel dispersion
Hence optimal receiver structure (in the sense of Lecture-4)
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
1
channel
1
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
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p. 25

if Hi(z)=1, Hj(z)=pure delay (e.g asynchronous CDMA)
- MUI=0 only if code cross-correlations are zero :

Hence need for proper code design (or need for other receiver)
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
1
channel
A
z
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
) ( 0 ... . .
2 2 1 1
j i c c c c
i j i j
= = + + =
A + A + A
|
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p. 26
`Single-user (`matched filter) receiver : case-2 (ctnd)

if but ,
then MUI may still ruin performance (=`near-far problem).
Solutions: - Power control
- `Near-far resistant receiver.
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
c
channel
A
z . o
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
) ( 0 ... . .
2 2 1 1
j i c c c c
i j i j
= ~ + + =
A + A + A
|
c o >>
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p. 27

if Hj(z)=0 (hence no MUI), but Hi(z)=multipath propagation
- ISI=0 only if code auto-correlations are zero :

Hence need for proper code design (or need for other receiver)
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
) (z H
i
channel
0
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
0 ... . .
2 2 1 1
= + + =
A + A + A
i i i i
c c c c |
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p. 28
alternative structure is a `true matched filter receiver:

This is the `RAKE receiver (mostly used in practice)
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
) (z H
i
channel
N
)
1
( ).
1
(
z
H
z
C
i i
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p. 29
RAKE receiver example :

One `finger for each channel tap. Each `finger draws
energy from one channel component (reflection).
noise
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
1
1 0
.

+ z h h
channel
)
1
(
z
C
i
N
1
z
)
1
(
z
C
i
N
1
h
0
h
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p. 30
Conclusion :
Single-user receivers o.k. for synchronous DS-
CDMA with mild multi-path effects
Requires proper code design, with suitably small
auto-correlations & cross-correlations (see below)
Near-far problem
More general receivers : Multi-user detection
(MUD) based receivers (see below)
Telecommunications
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p. 31
DS-CDMA : Code Design
`Pseudo-random codes : deterministic
sequences with noise-like (statistical) properties
Example : Maximum length codes
-linear shift register : binary & length n
-EXOR operation on selected bits

-code repetition period is
1 2
n
1 5 2 3
output=code
4
example: 5-stage, [2,3]
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p. 32
Example : Maximum length codes, 4-stage, [3,4]

1 2 3 4
state 1000 output 0
0100 0
0010 0
1001 1
1100 0
0110 0
1011 1
0101 1
1010 0
1101 1
1110 0
1111 1
0111 1
0011 1
0001 1
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p. 33
Example : Maximum length codes, 4-stage, [3,4]
properties:
- # 1-outputs (8) = # 0-outputs (7) + 1
- 4 runs of length 1
2 runs of length 2
1 run of length 3
1 run of length 4
properties always hold for max.length codes
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p. 34
Example: Maximum length codes
auto-correlation : (cyclic)

cross-correlation :
worst-case cross-correlation in a `family of
codes (same n), does not go to zero for large n

ps: for this, replace {0,1} by {-1,+1} (BPSK)
=
=
0 ) 1 (2 mod for
1 2
1
0 ) 1 (2 mod for 1
) (
n
n
n
,
t
t
t
i i
R
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p. 35
Other (improved) codes :
Gold Codes
Kasami Codes
Barker Codes
Walsh-Hadamard Codes
.
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p. 36
Example : IS-95 (CDMA/TDMA)
- Carrier spacing (bandwidth) 1.25 MHz
- Chip rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec
- QPSK/O-QPSK modulation
- Walsh codes (length 64) to separate physical channels
- Long code of length (2^42-1) for baseband
data-scrambling
- Long code of length (2^15-1) for quadrature spreading
(one for I, one for Q)
- Soft handover
- Power control
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p. 37
DS-CDMA : Multi-user detection

Problem Statement : optimal receiver structure
for the general case (asynchronous and/or
multipath and/or near-far) ??
Basic principles are those of Lecture-4 :
minimum-distance receiver, matched filter front-
ends and/or Nyquist-rate sampling front-end, etc..
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
) (z H
i
channel
noise
N
) (z C
j
) (z H
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
received signal
Telecommunications
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p. 38
Nyquist-rate sampling is chip-rate sampling
(if excess bandwidth sufficiently small)
Matched filter front-end consists of a bank of
matched filters, one for each active user.

-> Need to know all the user-codes : only @ base station
,... ,
1
i
k
i
k
a a
+
N
) (z C
i
N
) (z C
j
,... ,
1
j
k
j
k
a a
+
) (z H
i
channel
N
)
1
(
z
C
i
) (z H
j
noise
N
)
1
(
z
C
j
M
U
-
d
e
t
e
c
t
i
o
n

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p. 39
Minimum-distance receiver :
possible, but complexity is major impediment
(exponential in number of users !)
Other :
Zero-forcing (ISI/MUI)
MMSE
SIC (`serial interference cancellation)
PIC (`parallel interference cancellation)
= Active research area, vast recent literature &
considered for W-CDMA...
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p. 40
CDMA/DMT Combined Schemes
Several schemes have been presented that combine CDMA
features with DMT features:

Example-1 : multicarrier-CDMA (MC-CDMA)
first spreading, then different chips on different carriers
Example-2 : MC-DS-CDMA
frequences for different carriers spread by 1 and the same
spreading sequence
Example-3 : MT-CDMA
first DMT, then time domain spreading

Pros & Cons : see literature...
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p. 41
Example-1 : multicarrier-CDMA (MC-CDMA)
[Yee, Linnartz en Fettweis] [Fazel en Papke]

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p. 42
Example-2 : MC-DS-CDMA [DaSilva en Sousa]

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p. 43
Example-3 : MT-CDMA [Vandendorpe]

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p. 44
Other...
Block Spreading (`chip interleaving) :
[Cirpan en Tsatsanis]
for a code sequence
transmit a block of symbols multiplied by ,
then the same block multiplied by , etc
Leads to simpler (block) channel models.
DMT-CDMA with block spreading
etc.

Conclusion : Active research area, more to come...
,... , ,
3 2 1
i i i
c c c
i
c
2
i
c
1
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p. 45
Conclusions
Multiple Access :
- TDMA/FDMA/CDMA/SDMA
DS-CDMA:
- Single-user receiver structures (RAKE) :
mostly used in practice
- Code design
- Multi-user detection receivers
- CDMA/DMT

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