Radiographic Testing

X-rays and Gamma rays

Electromagnetic radiation
of very short wavelength-10nm=100A
o
and below &
Of very high energy - KV and MeV
Unlike other members of electromagnetic radiation they
are capable of penetrating and
ionising the mater
Physical identity of X-rays and gamma rays are
same. They differ only in their origin
X-rays are extranuclear
Gamma rays nuclear in origin
Properties of X-rays and gamma rays
1.St.line propagation: nondeflectability: invisibility
2. Penetrability- high energy
3. Attenuation I = Io e
- t
As the radiation penetrates the matter, the intensity is getting
reduced as given by the above expression
I
0
I
1
Intensity is getting reduced
4. Differential attenuation
If there are variations in the material, naturally, the attenuations
will differ.
I
1
I
2
I
1
I
3
I
1
Crack
Inclusion
The properties 1,2,3 & 4 are responsible for the information of inside of
the specimen which can be obtained from outcoming radiation. X-Rays
are invisible - Information is not readily available
6. Ionisation
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising in nature, meaning they are
capable of removing the electron from the matter. Ionisation
leads to photographic effect in photographic films.
Fluorescence effect is the basis for fluoroscopy and photographic
effect is used in film radiography
1. Photographic effect (Film radiography)
2. Fluorescence effect (Fluoroscopy or RTR)
Excitation and ionisation are responsible for recording the image
information
5. Excitation
X-rays and gamma rays are capable of exciting the electrons in
the atom to higher energy levels. Excitation of electrons in
some material leads to fluorescence, emission of light.
Penetration, St.line propagation,absorption and differential
absorption are responsible for shadow image formation
Recording mediums
X- rays and gamma rays are invisible. Detectors or recording
mediums are used to to see X-ray or gamma ray images
Photographic effect
More X-rays Less X-rays
Film
More ionization Less ionization
More darkening Less darkening Shadow image
Fluoresence effect
More Xrays Less Xrays
More light Less light visible image
Fl.screen
The recording mediums allow the invisible X-ray image visible
On development
Principle of radiography testing
X-rays and Gamma rays are allowed to penetrate the
material. They are absorbed as they penetrate the
material. They are differentially absorbed when there is
variation in material.
As a result of differential absorption, different intensities
are coming out the specimen carrying information about
the variations. As these are invisible, they are allowed to
fall on a recording medium to form a shadow image or
silhouette image
The recording mediums are
1.Photographic film(Film Radiography) (-ve image)
2.Fluorescent screen(Fluoroscopy or RTR)(+ve image)
Film Radiography
Top view of developed film
X-ray film
The part is placed between the
radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
= more exposure
= less exposure
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
reaching the film
through the test object.
Medicinal X-rays Max.50KV- compared to 100 KV and
above in industrial radiography
Applications of Radiographic Testing
Other applications:
1. Correctness of assembly
2. Connections in PCB and chips
3. Baggage checking in airports by security & customs
Baggage checking
by Fluoroscopy/Real
Time Radiography
Radiographic Images
RT is very good for volumetric defects like
shrinkage, inclusion, porosity etc.
Crack sensitivity is not good- laminations ??






















Appearance of inclusions in film radiography
Both are steel welds and film radiography. The
left side inclusion appears dark and the other
inclusion appears light why?
In both the welds if the inclusions are same &
identical,what is your comment on the two
images










Do the doctors ever take radiograph of the
abdomen to look for any growth or variation
Do they ever take the radiograph of brain to find
the tumor (skull can be radiographed)
Radiograph of FRP fibre reinforced plastic can it
show the fibres & distribution and orientation of
fibres .
Differential attenuation is the basis of radiography
and only when a large variation in attenuation
between two different portions, a satisfactory
image is obtained
A large inclusion in steel weld cannot show up,
if the attenuation of the inclusion and steel
material are one and the same
Differential attenuation is more when the defect
is parallelel
X-ray Generation
When fast moving electrons are suddenly decelerated, X-rays
are produced. The kinetic energy acquired is converted into X-
ray photon energy
The spectrum of X-rays generated in X-ray tube is continuous
or white X-rays superimposed with characteristic X-rays, K

,
K

etc..
Conventional X-ray tubes can produce X-rays energy upto 600
KV (100KV)
High energy sources
There are applications for very much higher energy and
penetrating power in the range of 1 Mev 25 Mev in
industrial radiography. Basically they consist a source of
electrons and a means of producing high electric field to
accelerate the electrons. As in the case of X-ray tubes, they
strike the target and high energy X-rays are produced.
Betatron, linear accerators and Van de Graff generators are
some of high energy sources
Radiography
The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter
wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we
see as visible light. The radiation can
come from an X-ray generator or a
radioactive source.
High Electrical Potential
Electrons
- +
X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
Source Creates
Radiation
Exposure Recording Device
Radiation
Penetrate
the Sample





Typical X-ray Machines and Their Applications

Maximum
voltage- kV
Applications and Approximate
Thickness Limits
50 Thin sections of most metals;
moderate thickness of graphite
and beryllium; small electronic
components; wood, plastics etc
150 5 inch aluminum or equivalent
1-inch steel or equivalent -
11/2-inch steel or equivalent
300 3 inch steel or equivalent -
4 inch steel or equivalent.
400 31/2-inch steel or equivalent
41/2-inch steel or equivalent
1000 5-inch steel or equivalent..
8-inch steel or equivalent
2000 8 inch steel or equivalent
8 to 25 MeV 16 -inch steel or equivalent.
20-inch steel or equivalent.


Thickness
limitation
Industrial Gamma -Ray Sources and
Their Applications (practical thickness
range)

Source Applications and
Approximate Practical
Thickness Limits
Thulium 170 Plastics, wood, light
alloys. 1/2-inch steel or
equivalent
Iridium 192 0.5 - to 31/2-inch steel
or equivalent
Cesium 137 0.75 to 4-inch steel or
equivalent
Cobalt 60 11/2- to 9-inch steel or
eq.

1. 17 & 1. 33 Mev
900KV
Av. 600KV
Thickness ranges for common isotope sources
Natural Radioactivity
Elements with Atomic number more than 88, the nucleus
with very high mass becomes unstable and by disintegrating
or decaying, nucleus becomes stable. The disintegration or
decay mechanisms, or processes are emission of alpha, beta
and gamma radiation
1.Alpha is +vely charged and beta is ve
2. Nondeflectability of gamma rays
Artificial radioactivity
Definitions Isotope, Isobar, Radioactivity natural
Isotopes Atoms of the same element having different
atomic masses eg Examples
Co 59 and Co 60

Z
Nc
A
27
Co
59
27
Co
60


Other examples
Same atomic No. but different atomic masses -
What leads to this variation or the origin of isotopes
1
H
1

1
H
2

1
H
3
RT-Basics-6 (contd)
Isobars:Atoms with same atomic mass and
different atomic number. Mother and
daughter nucleus of radioactive isotopes
27
Co
60
and
28
Ni
60


Artificially produced radioactive Isotopes
Certain elements can be converted into radioactive isotopes
by neutron bombardment. They are unstable because of the
extra neutron and undergo changes resulting in emission of
gamma rays.
In entire radiography only artificially produced radioactive
isotopes are used and never naturally occurring radioactive
elements.
Gamma ray sources: (artificial isotopes- Co60,Ir192,
Cs137)
Artificial isotopes can be obtained either as fission product
or due to fussion
Cs135 is fission product (U(235)
Co60 and Ir.192 are fusion product with Neutron
bombardment

Normal elements like Co, Ir are exposed to neutron
bombardment in nuclear reactors. Small pellets of Co, Ir
are taken in Al cylinders and subjected to neutron
bombardment.
Co 59 + n = Co 60 + gamma
(neutron in gamma out)

27
C0
60

beta decay
28
Ni
60 *


1.17Mev 1.33 Mev

28
Ni
60


Isomeric transition
A = N a f (1-e
0.693 t/T
)
A = activity
N - no of atoms in sample f - neutron flux ( )
a - is the cross section in sq.cm
t - time of neutron bombardment
T - the half life of the product
Gamma ray spectrum
Compared to X-rays continuous super
imposed with characteristic X-rays
Gamma rays are discreet and discontinuous
Interaction of X-rays and Gamma rays with
matter
When X-rays and gamma rays pass through the
matter the intensity of primary radiation
decreases as given by the attenuation
equation.
I = I o . e
- t

(transparencies)

This is due to the various interaction
processes the radiation undergoes with the
matter. The two main processes of
attenauation are 1) absorption and 2)
scattering. Put together the various
interaction processes are
1. Rayleigh scattering (coherent scattering)
2. Photoelectric effect
3. Compton scattering (incoherent cattering)
4. Pair production
As a result of interaction processes X-ray
and gamma ray photons are partly absorbed
and partly scattered leading to reduction in
transmitted radiation
Absorption process photoelectric effect
Scattering process - Rayleigh and Comton
scattering
Higher the energy lower the attenuation
coefficient what is the meaning
Interaction processes are less and radiation
penetrates without getting affected
High energy X-rays penetrate more !!!
Summary and final result or impact on radiographic
testing
Scattered radiation ( )
Primary radiation Secondary
radiation
Particle radiation ( )
Total attenuation coefficient is sum individual
attenuation coefficients

T
=

RS +

PE +

CS +

PP

T
= C
Z
3
E
3
More
T
or less

T
for radiographic image ?
What is the disadvantage: Eg
More E or less E : Xray and gamma rays
Radiation units
Energy quality of radiation ev,kv. Mev
Intensity quantity-ma mts- Ci mts
Source strength of gamma ray sources
Disintegrations /sec
Bq SI unit 1 dps
Ci CGS unit 3.7 x 10
10
dps
Other units are
Exposure dose
Radiation absorbed dose
Radiation equivalent man
If one follows chronology and evolution, the units
can be easily understood and differentiated
Basis for these units
These units exposure dose, radiation absorbed dose
and radiation equivalent man are indicative of the
effect the radiation is going bring about in air, all
materials and man respectively. The effect is due to
both energy and intensity. However for one kind of
radiation, it may be directly related intensity or
amount and hence they are taken to be roughly
intensity units
Exposure dose: (Roentgen)
R is defined as the quantity of radiation that will
produce 10
9
ion pairs in 1 cc of air at NTP. Or that will
produce 1 esu in dry air at NTP. 1 R if it is fully absorbed
will produce an amount of ionisation equivalent to 83
ergs of energy/gm of air. ( mR)
This unit is applicable to X-rays and gamma rays only and
only to air
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad)
Limitation of Roentgen
To cover all materials and all radiations
Rad :It is the amount of radiation energy imparted to
matter /unit of mass of irradiated material. 1 Rad
represents 100 ergs of energy/gm of material at the
place of exposure.
R = 83 ergs/gm air
R = 97 ergs/gm animal tissues
R is approximately equal to Rad in these cases. For
other materials there may differer much
Problem with this unit ?
One Rad of alpha radiation can cause more damage to
human cells compared to one Rad of X-ray and
gamma rays. Or in otherwords bilogical effectiveness
of different radiations are different. (LET)
Radiation Biological effectiveness(RBE)
Weighing factor/quality factor
The relative biological effectiveness of different
radiations are
X-ray and gamma rays = 1
Beta particle = 1
Neutrons = 10
Alpha particles = 20
So to differentiate the effect of various radiations on
human beings the unit rem - radiation equivalent
man has been introduced.-Rem
The Rem is defined as the quantity of ionising radiation of
any type which when when absorbed in biological system
results in the same biological effect as one unit of absorbed
dose in form of low LET (linear energy transfer) radiation.
R e m = Rad X RBE.
SI unit and comparison with old unit


Old unit

SI unit

Exposure
Dose

Roentgen
10
9
ion pairs in
air
83 ergs/gm

coulombs/kg

1R=2.58x10-4 C/kg


Radiation
absorbed
dose

Rad
100 ergs/gm

Gray
1 J/kg = 100rad

Radiation
equivalent
man

rem

Sievert
1 Sievert = 100rem


Dose rate = R/hr, mR/hr etc
Some more useful units
Specific gamma ray constant Specific emission
The exposure dose rate of 1 Ci Co source at 1 mtre is
a specific vale and is known Specific gamma ray
constant RHM(Roentgen/hour at 1 mtre
RHM of Co is 1.32 R/hr at 1 mtre
RHM of Ir is 0.5 R/hr at mtre
Specific Activity is
Ci /gm determines the size of the source for
same activity-high spcific activity source is
smaller for the same activity-significance
Inverse Square law
I
1
/I
2 =
d
2
2
/ d
2
1
Basic imaging considerations
Subject Contrast
a)Image contrast
Radiographic contrast
Film Contrast
Geometric unsharpness
b) Image Definition
Image Sharpness
Inherent unsharpness
c)Distortion of image : Graininess
Image quality
Definition (sharpness, acuity)
Ability to distinguish two close points
Contrast
Difference in film density (blackness) between two
points
Measured by image quality indicator
(penetrameter)
Quality= Def inition+Contrast
To obtain a good radiograph
Reduce the unsharpnesses to the minimum
Select the conditions for high contrast
Ensure radiation beam parallel to the
orientation defect to reduce distortion
Assess the quality of the radiograph by using
Image Quality Indicators Artificial details
Penetrameters (penny)
Sensitivity of the radiograph is ascertained using
the above. In radiography the sensitivity is so
defined that a lower sensitivity is higher quality
radiograph and the other way. In RT standards
specify a sensitivity of 2% or less.
Definitions of contrast and definition
Radiograph is a shadow image an image filled
with light and dark regions. Then what is
contrast and definition
Contrast is darkness (photographic density)
variation between the image and background or
other portions.
Definition or sharpness is darkness variation
between the boundary and adjacent portion
Example
Differentiate between contrast and definition-the
variables that influence contrast and definition
In review, it is entirely possible to have
radiographs with the following qualities:
Low contrast and poor definition
High contrast and poor definition
Low contrast and good definition
High contrast and good definition
One must bear in mind that radiographic contrast
and detail are not dependent upon the same set
of factors. If definition in a radiograph is
originally lacking, then attempts to manipulate
radiographic contrast will have no effect on the
amount of definition present in that radiograph.
Radiographic contrast
Radiographic contrast or image contrast is
photographic density difference between the
image and the background. This comprises of
both subject contrast and film contrast
Photographic density:
Opacity: measure of darkness or lightness
Film transmittance:the ability of a film to pass light




light that passes through the film at P
T
total light incident on film at P

=

1
log( ) log D O
T
| |
= =
|
\ .
D = log I
o
I
t
Density: the common logarithm of film opacity
Example
Measurement
Structure of film
X-ray film : characteristics of X-ray film as
compared to photographic film: coating of
emulsion on both sides and also thickness of
emulsion is considerably greater than ordinary
photographic film. An emulsion of AgBr on
Cellulose acetate or polyester ease
Type of films and their characteristics
The film construction is essentially
a.transparent base- for the photosensitive emulsion
b.emulsion (photosensitive AgBr dispersed in gelatin)
c. bonding layer between base and the emulsion
d. antiabrasive layer to protect the emulsion from
S scratches etcs
Structure of film ( contd )
This acts as the support for all important emulsion layer
which is responsible for image formation. This layer is
transparent and is blue tinted for easy identification by
the human eyes. Thickness of the layer is 0.001 in.
Cellulose nitrate - used earlier - explosive -discorded
Celllulose acetate - used for some time -now disposed
Polyester or plastic - versatile - many good properties
Presently widely used including for automatic processing
Emulsion layer:This part of the film is responsible for image
formation. This layer consists of dispersion of light (photo)
sensitive AgBr grains (AgBr Crystals) in the trasparent gelatin
layer.
Emulsion thickness is 0.025 mmThe AgBr grain or crystal
size varies between 0.2 mto 1.0 m
This variation in the grain size leads to various types of films
like high speed and low speed and also high contrast and low
contrast films.In other words, the entire classification of
films by manufacturers are based on the variation of grain
sizes that leads to various classes of radiograph.
Structure of radiographic film


Type and class

Speed of
the film

Grain size

Contrast


Definition

NDT 45 Cl I
D2

Very slow

Ultra fine
grain

Very high
contrast

While
sharpness

NDT 55 Cl II
D4

Slow

very fine
grain

High
contrast

is mainly
determined

NDT 65 Cl III
D7

Medium

Medium grain

Medium
contrast

by geometric
NDT 70 Cl IV
D10.
| in No + in
contrast

High
speed

Coarse grain

Low
contrast

arrangement
film also
contributes
to definition.

Struct
ure of
film
Film contrast (continued)
log
D
E

A
=
A
= 2.3 m x S
fine grain Type of film
1. Film property m - High contrast
coarse grain Low contrast

2. Photographic density S
Higher the density higher will be the contrast
Normally doubling of S doubles the contrast
Normally in ind.radiography, we have S= 2-3
1.8 - 4.0 and 2.0 - 4.0 (as per standard-Why?
above 4 not preferred ?Limitations of
viewing conditions and above 5 no increase
in contrast
3. Processing condition ie the developing time ASM Hand
book
Ug=F t / D where t is thickness when object is
placed on the film
Ug = F t / SFD-t where SFD is source to
film distance
Pneumbr
al
shadow
Blurring
extension
of the
image
Distortion of image due to direction of beam
X-ray beam parallel-no distortion good image X-
ray beam at angle- distortion not satisfactory
Depending upon the defect (orientation) X-ray
beam need be directed. Different configurations of
weld different exposures to cover all features
Laminations and radiographic testing
Distortion of image due to direction of beam
X-ray beam parallel-no distortion good image X-
ray beam at angle- distortion not satisfactory
Depending upon the defect (orientation) X-ray
beam need be directed. Different configurations of
weld different exposures to cover all features
Laminations and radiographic testing
Porosity shows up irrespective of direction of
radiation.
Lack of side wall fusion needs a definite
direction of radiation to be shown
Image quality
factors
Variables that be
controlled
Assessment of quality
of the radiograph
Image quality
indicators (IQI) or
penetrameters

High Contrast
Good definition
Least Distortion
Less graininess
K V (energy)
mA (Current)
mts (Time)
FFD
OFD
Focal Spot size
Type of Film
Density of film
Processing
condition
Use of screens
Orientation of
X-rays
Artificial details
placed on the
specimen and
radiographed. The
smallest detail that
is seen in the
radiograph is
indicative of the
quality of the
image and not the
size of the defect
that can be seen

Image quality indicators:

Two types of penetrameters or image quality
indicators are mainly used to determine the
quality of the radiographic image.
Penetrameter material and the specimen need be
one and the same
These are placed on the specimen and radiographed
Radiograph gives the image of the specimen
superimposed with the image of penetramenter.
The image of penetrameter gives an indication
about the quality of the image.
Penetrameter sensitivity is indicative of only the
quality of the image and it shall not be related to
the size of the defect that can be detected. This
is because the penetrameter orientation is ideal
with respect to absorption and the actual defect
orientation is not known.
A sensitivity of 2% or less is required as per standards


ASTM plaque type penetrameters:


Metal plaques of various thicknesses containing holes of diameters of 1T, 2 T and 4 T.
Plaque of 2% of the thickness of the specimen is placed and radiographed. In the
radiograph

1.the outline of the gives the contrast sensitivity and the
2.perceptible holes gives the definition sensitivity and both
put together gives the overall sensitivity.

Fig.









The quality levels are 2 - 1T and 2 - 2 T and 2 - 4T depending upon the visibility of the
outline of the plaque and smallest perceptible hole. These level can be converted to DIN
penetrameter sensitivity by the use of the following equation and the equation also
facilitates use any penetrameter in the case the suitable one is not available.


Equivalent penetrameter sensittivity = 1/x X \ (T h/2)
where x is the specimen thickness
T is the thickness of plaque (inch) and
h is the hole dia. (inches)

Personnel safety and radiation protection
X-rays and gamma rays bring about ionisation and
excitation in living cells causing damage to the
human body. The damage is of two types namely
Somatic and Genetic.
Somatic effects relate to injuries to the cells
which are concerned with maintenance of body
functions say cells in blood and bone marrow

Genetic effects relate to the cells in the genes and
chromosomes which are responsible for passing genetic
characteristics to the subsequent generation.
Living with radiation
Background radiation
Background radiation

Natural Background 0.006 mR/hr
Coal Burning Power Plant 0.165 mR/yr
X-rays from TV set (1 inch) 0.500 mR/hr
Airplane ride (39,000 ft.) 0.500 mR/hr
Nuclear Power Plant (normal
operation at plant boundary)
0.600 mR/yr
Weapons Fallout ~1 mR/yr
Building materials (concrete) 3 mR/yr
Drinking Water 5mRem/yr
Cosmic Radiation (sea level) 26 mRem/yr
Radionuclides in the body (ie
potassium)
39 mRem/yr

Average annual total 360 millirem/year

Maximum allowable limits
The following are the exposure limits as per I C R P.
Radiation workers above 18 years - 0.05 Sv 5 Rem / year
Trainees below 18 years - 0.015 Sv 1.5 Rem/year
General public above 18 years - 0.005 Sv 0.5 Rem/year
The whole body dose of 0.05 Sv is usually interpolated as 1
mSv = 0.001 Sv/week (1mSv = 100 mRem) and to 25 micro
Sv/hr ( 2.5 mRem/hr) (no Banking concept)

Dose limits for individual organs and tissues (other than lens
of the eye)/year


DIN Penetrameters:

RADIOGRAPHIC
TECHNIQUES
FILM SCREEN COMBINATION
SWSI
S
1

S
2

SWSI
15
S
1
- F
1

S
2
- F
2
10 - 15 OFFSET TO
PENETRATE THE ROOT
F
1

TWO INDIVIDUAL EXPOSURES
ON TWO SEPARATE FILMS
s
IQI
IQI
IQI
FILM
SOURCE INSIDE
FILM OUTSIDE
SWSI PANAROMIC EXPOSURE
S
IQI
FILM
SWSI
SOURCE INSIDE
FILM OUTSIDE
S
FILM
SOURCE OUTSIDE
FILM INSIDE
SWSI
FILM
S
DWSI
DWSI FOR LARGE CS JOINTS,
CROSS COUNTRY PIPE LINES,
SOURCE OUTSIDE, FILM
OUTSIDE, IQI ON FILM SIDE

MIN. SFD > OD OF PIPE
WELD IS SEGMENTED TO COVER
THE ENTIRE GRITH + OVERLAP.
FILM
DWDI
PIPES<3 OD
OD/ID RATIO LESS THAN \2
TWO EXPOSURES AT 90 APART TO
COVER COMPLETE VOLUME OF WELD
ELLIPTICAL
IMAGE
PIPE OD < 3
OD/ID>\ 2.
No. OF SHOTS
REQD.
1.7 X OD/ID
( To the Next
Highest integer)

Not Covered in Two
Exposures At 90
Apart.
DWDI SUPERIMPOSED
Double Wall super
Imposed Image
interpreted for Both
sides of Welds
SOURCE SIDE
FILM SIDE IMAGES -
OVERLAPED