WATER PURIFICATION

METHODS
PURIFICATION OF WATER
On a large scale
On a small scale

Purpose of water treatment is to
produce water that is safe and
wholesome.
METHOD OF TREATMENT
It depends upon :-
Nature of raw water
The desired standard of water quality

Components of water purification
system
Storage
Filtration
disinfection
STORAGE
Storage is a method of natural
purification.
Physical
Chemical
Biological
Purification of Water on Large Scale
Storage
Sedimentation: preliminary to filtration,
prevents rapid clogging of filters. Aluminium
sulphate (alum): 5-40 mg/L
Filtration: removal of 98-99% of bacteria +
impurities
Slow sand or biological filters: fine sand
Rapid sand or mechanical filters: coarse sand
Disinfection:
Physical methods: boiling, UV radiation, solar
energy (solar still) etc
Chemical methods: chlorination, ozonation etc
STORAGE
Reduces suspended impurities 90% in 24
Hrs
Reduces bacterial count 90% in 5-7 days
Optimum storage of river water: 10-14
days
Storage for long periods (beyond two
weeks) results in excessive algae growth,
bad smell and colour to water
Copper sulphate 1-5 kg/5000 m3 (2-10 lb
per million gallons ) for control of
excessive growth of algae.
SLOW SAND FILTERS
(contd)
Four main elements:
Water Head: a layer of raw water, 1-1.5
meters deep
Sand Bed: 1 meter thickness, gravel
support o.30 meter or 30-40 cm deep
Sand grains diameter: 0.2-0.3 mm, fine
sand. Top layer easily clogged & top 3-5 cm
sand is removed periodically for washing
Drainage system: perforated pipes
Filter control valves
Chemical coagulants are not used
Vital Layer or Zoogleal Layer or
Schmutzdeckeor Biological Layer
Slimy, gelatinous layer
Formed on the top of sand bed, 2-3 cm,
2-3 days
Consists of multiple organisms including
bacteria, diatoms, planktons, algae etc
Heart of slow sand filter
Removes organic matter, holds back
bacteria, free water
When thick, top layer 2-3 cm scrapped
out
Until the vital layer fully formed, filtrate
is run to waste
Cross section of slow sand
bed
vital layer
Sand
Gravel
Water
Filtered water
Stone
SLOW SAND FILTER
SECTION OF FILTER BED
ADVANTAGES OF
SLOW SAND FILTER
Simple to construct and operate
The cost of construction is cheaper than
that of rapid sand filters
The physical, chemical and bacteriological
quality of filtered water is very high when
working ideally; slow sand filters have
been shown to reduce total bacterial
counts by 99.9 to 99.99 percent and E.
coli by 99 to 99.9 percent.
VENTURI METER
This measures the resistance of
the filtration bed or loss of
head to filtration process.
Rapid Sand or Mechanical
Filters
Two types: open gravity type, closed pressure type
Steps:
Coagulation: Alum 5-40 mg/L
Rapid mixing: mixing chamber
Flocculation: flocculation chamber for 30 minutes.
Flocculent precipitate of Aluminium hydroxide, large flocs
that settle more easily. Colloidal + suspended particle +
alum : large flocs (alum-flocs)
Sedimentation: sedimentation tanks (2-6 hrs), flocculent
precipitate + impurities + bacteria settle down
Filtration
Disinfection
Note: this conventional treatment is not effective in
the removal of heavy metals & radioactivity. For
their removal, Absorption on Granular Activated
Carbon (GAC filters) may be required.
Flow Diagram Of A Rapid
Sand Filtration Plant
CHLORINE
MIXING
CHAMBER
FLOCCULATION
CHAMBER
SEDIMENTATION
TANK
FILTERS
CLEAN
WATER
CONSUMPTION
RIVER
VIEW OF RAPID SAND FILTER
FILTER BEDS
Filtering medium: sand ( effective
size of sand particles 0.4-0.7 mm,
coarse sand)
Depth of sand bed: 1-1.5 feet deep
Clogging of filters by suspended
impurities and bacteria: Loss of Head
Cleaning by back-washing daily or
weekly for 15 minutes
Compressed air
ADVANTAGES
Rapid sand filter can deal with
raw water directly
No preliminary storage is needed
The filter beds occupy less space
Filtration is rapid, 40 50 times
that of a slow sand filter
The washing of the filter is easy
There is more flexibility in
operation.
COMPARISON OF RAPID AND
SLOW SAND FILTERS
s. No Rapid Sand
Filter
Slow Sand
Filter
1. Space Occupies very
little space
Occupies large
area
2. Rate of
Filtration
200 m.g.a.d 2-3 m.g.a.d
3. Effective size
of sand
0.4-0.7 mm 0.20.3 mm
4. Preliminary
treatment
Chemical
coagulation and
sedimentation
Plain
sedimentation
5. Washing By back-
washing
By scraping the
sand bed
COMPARISON OF RAPID AND
SLOW SAND FILTERS
s. No Rapid Sand
Filter
Slow Sand
Filter
6. Operation Highly skilled Less skilled
7. Loss of head
allowed
6 8 feet 4 feet
8. Removal of
turbidity
Good Good
9. Removal of
colour
Good Fair
10. Removal of
bacteria
98-99 percent 99.9-99.99
percent
Water Chlorination
More than 98% of U.S. supply systems use
chlorine-based disinfectants.
The effectiveness of all chemical treatment
of water is related to the temperature, PH
level and clarity of water.
Cloudy water often requires higher
concentrations of chemical to disinfect.
If the water temperature is below (4 degree
centigrade), double the treatment time
before drinking.
Contact time must increase under lower
temperature, or high PH (alkalinity).
Water Chlorination
Supplement not a substitute to sand filtration
For drinking water, doses varying from 1 to 4 ppm
are usually employed
H
2
O + CL
2
= HCL + HOCL
Disinfecting action of chlorine mainly due to
hypochlorous acid
PH of water = 6.5-8.5. Chlorine acts more rapidly
in acid water, its efficiency also increases as
temperature rises.
Not effective if PH of water above 7.2 or below 6.8

Principles of Chlorination or
Chlorine Process
Water: should be clear, free from turbidity
(turbidity impedes efficient chlorination)
Estimate chlorine demand of water: ( amount
of chlorine needed to destroy bacteria & to
oxidize all organic matter present in water
Contact period: to 1 hour to kill bacteria &
viruses
Minimum free residual chlorine: 0.3 - 0.5
mg/L or 0.5 ppm, provides a margin of safety
against subsequent microbial contamination.
At 1 ppm & over taste troubles
Correct dose of chlorine: chlorine demand of
water +free residual chlorine
Principles of Chlorination
contd
Never add any solid form of
chlorine directly to water supply.
Always make up a paste first.
Various forms of Chlorine
Chlorine gas: chloronomes, chlorine gas
cylinders
Chlorine powder, Bleaching powder or
WSP: chlorine content = 33% + quick lime or
calcium oxide. Very unstable, chlorine lost due to
moisture, CO
2,
heat, light etc. one teaspoonful = 5
gm of WSP, small safety box = 15 gm of WSP
Chlorine tablets: Puritabs or Halazone tablets:
one tablet of 5-mg sufficient for 20 litres of water
Chlorine Stock solution: 3 tablespoons of
WSP + 1 liter of water. 3 drops of this solution in
1 liter of water
One scoopful of WSP when added to 100 gallons
of water, is equivalent to a dose of 1 ppm of
chlorine.

Methods of Chlorination
Simple Chlorination
Chloramination
Breakpoint Chlorination
Super chlorination
Simple chlorination
Chlorine gas or Bleaching
powder
Dose determined by Horrocks
apparatus
Chloramination
Ammonia + chlorine ratio = 1:4
or 1:5
Long action of 2 hours
Germicidal action of 2 hours
Germicidal power less than
chlorine
More stable, long acting
No objectionable odour or
taste
Swimming pools
Breakpoint Chlorination
Chlorine + natural ammonia =
chloramines
Destruction of chloramines
Breakpoint: point at which free
residual chlorine is available
for continuous disinfection
FORMATION
OF
CHLORAMINE
DESTRUCTION OF
CHLORAMINE
BREAK
POINT
FREE
RESIDUAL
CHLORINE
BREAK POINT CHLORINATION
Super chlorination
Addition of excess chlorine than
requirement (H+1) (H= dose determined
by Horrocks test in scoopfuls + one extra
scoop. One scoop = 2 gm or 1 ppm of
chlorine in 100 gallons of water
Dechlorination: sulphur dioxide 1:1 or
sodium thiosulphate 1.8:1 (oxidising
agents)
Each one gm of sodium thiosulphate
when dissolved in water, will remove 1
ppm of chlorine from 100 gallons or 455
liters of water
Super chlorination contd
Epidemics, heavily polluted
waters
Kills viruses, ova, cysts
Superchlorination provides a chlorine residual of 3-5
mg/L, 10 times the recommended minimum
breakpoint chlorine concentration
Retention time: 5 minutes
Activated carbon filtration removes the high chlorine
residual.

Tests For Free Chlorine
Orthotolidine test: 0.1 ml orthotolidine reagent +
1 ml water. Yellow colour matched with standard
or colour discs. Reading within 10 seconds
Orthotolidine arsenite test: modification of OT
test. Determines free and combined chlorine
residuals separately
Starch Iodide test: 3 drops of cadmium iodide and
starch indicator solution + 5 ml H
2
O = blue colour.
Depth of colour increasing with the amount of
chlorine present. The colour test is carried out at
the end of 30 minutes. If a blue colour is
obtained, the water is fit to drink. If no blue
colour is obtained, one more scoopful of WSP per
100 gallons must be added to water. After super
chlorination, colour test can be performed after
15 minutes. If no blue colour or faint blue colour,
dosage insufficient & should be repeated using 2
scoopfuls of WSP to each 100 gallons of water.
OZONATION
Ozone is produced on site by the corona discharge of
high-voltage electricity in to dry air or oxygen
Made of oxygen and reverts to pure oxygen
Unstable gas Powerful oxidizing agent, disinfectant
than chlorine
No by-products
Strong virucidal effect inactivates virus in few
seconds
Eliminates odour, taste, colour
Employed in combination with chlorination usually
Disadvantage: ozone cannot be purchased, must be
generated on-site

OZONATION (contd)
Ozone as pretreatment of water is
used to destroy viruses, bacteria &
organic compounds (precursors of
trihalomethanes (carcinogens)
Dosage: 0.2 1.5 mg/L
More than 1000 municipal water
treatment plants are utilizing
ozonation oldest plant is in
France, working since1906
Drawback of Ozonation: no residual
germicidal effect, expensive, energy
intensive
Used in Europe and US to reduce the level
of THMs in finished water
Ultraviolet Irradiation
Uses light, UV rays, to kill
microorganisms (viruses,
molds & other pathogens)
used in individual or
institutional systems
Water should be free from
turbidity or suspended
impurities
Ultraviolet Irradiation contd
Advantages: exposure for shorter
period, no taste or odour produced,
no harmful effects, no requirement
for addition of chemicals, no toxic by-
products
Disadvantages: no residual effect, lack of rapid
field test for assessing treatment efficiency,
apparatus / maintenance expensive, does not kill
giardia, cysts, worms, cloudy or turbid decreases
effectiveness

Purification of water on a small
scale or Emergency Disinfection
Boiling: rolling boil for 5-10 minutes, kills
bacteria, viruses, parasites like giardia &
cryptospordium, concentrates Nitrate
levels.
Bleaching powder: 33% available
chlorine, dose determined by Horrocks
Test or 2-3 gm/1000 liter of clear water
Chlorine stock solution : Add 3
tablespoons (33gms) of WSP to one liter
of water. Add 3 drops (0.6ml) of this
solution to one liter of water.
Chlorine tablets: Halazone, Puritbas, one
tablet in 1 liter of water.
Purification of water on a small scale
or Emergency Disinfection
Iodine solution or tablets: 2 drops of 2%
solution in 1 liter of water or one tablet in
one liter of water
Filtration: Portable Water Filters for
Emergency Relief :
Pasteurization:

Disinfection of Wells
Find the volume of water in a well:
Volume (liters)= 3.14 x d
2
x h x
1000/4 whereas d is diameter of
well in meters, h is depth of water
in meters
Find the amount of Bleaching
Powder required for disinfection by
Horrocks test
Dissolve Bleaching powder in water
bucket
Disinfection of Wells
Deliver chlorine solution to water
Contact period: one hour
Test for residual chlorine (o.5
ppm)
Wells best disinfected at night

HORROCKS TEST
used to determine the
smallest dose of Water
Sterilizing Powder (WSP) in
standard scoopfuls needed
to sterilize 455 liters (100
gallons) of a water sample
HORROCKS TEST
Contents of Horrocks Apparatus:
Six white cups
One black cup
Two metal scoops
Seven glass sterilizing rods
One special pipette
Two droppers
Cadmium Iodide starch indicator solution

HORROCKS TEST (contd)
Procedure:
Prepare stock solution by taking
one level of scoopful of WSP in
black cup
Fill six white cups with water to
be tested
Add one drop of stock solution to
first cup, two drops in second
cup, 3 drops to third cup & so on
Stir the water & wait for half an
hour
HORROCKS TEST (contd)
Add 3 drops of starch iodide
indicator solution to each of
white cups
Development of blue colour
indicates free residual chlorine
Dose for super chlorination:
H+1

HORROCKS TEST (contd)
One level of scoopful = 2
gm = 1 ppm
Each white cup capacity
= 200 ml