CELLULAR STRUCTURE

Ariel Jose U. Ampil, MD, FPSA

Internist Diabetologist
Cell
- smallest functional and structural unit of the human
body
Cytology
- study of the individual cell and the structure it contains
Tissue
- group of cells similar in structure, function and
intercellular substances
Histology
- science that deals with the study of tissues
Microscopic anatomy
- study of the human body with the aid of a magnifying
object
Microscopy
Microcopy is the aid in the study of the human
body structure by the use of a magnifying
instrument called the microscope.
The microscope renders the details of the
cells, tissues and organs.
Microscopy
The useful magnification of an ordinary light
microscope is about 1200X.
The magnification of lens is the number of
times the image of an object is enlarged
compared with the actual size of the object.
The total magnification of the object is
solving the product of the separate
magnification powers of the objective lens
and ocular lens.
Microscopy
The usefulness of any microscope is not only
dependent on its ability to magnify but also
on its ability to resolve details.
The resolving power (resolution) is its
capacity to give images of objects close
together. It is measured as the smallest
distance between two particles that can be
distinguished from each other.

Compound Microscope
A compound microscope is also called a light
microscope.
The principle involved is the refraction of light.
The resolving power of the best light
microscope is approximately 0.2 um.
The magnifying image is about 1,500 times or
0.25 um.
Electron Microscope
This also known as the transmission electron
microscope.
The electron microscope functions on the
principle that a beam of electrons can be
deflected by electromagnetic fields in a
manner similar to light deflection in glass
lenses.
Electron Microscope
Electrons are produced by high temperature
heating of a metallic filament (cathode) in a
vacuum.
Its resolving power is very high and objects
can be magnified over a hundred thousand
times.
It uses extremely thin preparations of tissues
because of the low penetration of electrons.

Advantages of Electron Microscopes
Very high resolution
Very high magnification
Has greatly extended the understanding of the
ultrastructure or molecular structure of cells
Disadvantages of Electron Microscopes
Requires a vacuum enclosed system
Requires ultra thin sections of specimens
Requires a high voltage
Requires the service of highly-trained
personnel
Very complex system
Very expensive
Differences between light microscopes
and electron microscopes
Light microscopes use light while electron microscopes
use electron beams emitted by tungsten filaments or
electron particles
Light microscopes use glass lens while electron
microscopes use electron magnetic fields or electric fields
Light microscopes have a low resolving power while
electron microscopes have a higher resolution
Light microscopes are open systems while electron
microscopes are vacuum enclosed systems
Light microscopes offer direct viewing of objects with the
naked eye, while electron microscopes use a fluorescent
screen for viewing
Light microscopes less expensive
Light microscopes do not require high voltage while
electron microscopes do
Differences between light microscopes
and electron microscopes
Light microscope Electron microscope
Other Microscopes
Scanning electron microscope a variant of the electron microscope which
permits a three dimensional analysis of surfaces of fixed and dehydrated cells,
organs or small organisms. The image is formed indirectly by accumulation from the
specimen point by point. The electron beams do not have to pass thru the specimen
so that there is no need to cut ultrathin sections but there is less resolution than the
transmission electron microscope
Phase contrast microscope a modification of the light microscope,
particularly useful for the study of unstained cells, either living or fixed. The different
protoplasmic constituents produce phase changes because they vary in thickness and
refractive index. The phase microscope converts phase variants into intensity
variations and thereby enables the eyes to detect more contrast between different
structures. The microscope is useful in the study of mitosis that renders the
chromosomes and other cell organelles darker than the surrounding cytoplasm
Interference microscope utilizes the principle of sending two separate
beams of light thru the specimen, which are then recombined in the image plane.
One beam is focused in a neutral area beside, above or below the observed structure.
This provides tridimensional images of living cells and its components
Fluorescent microscope a microscope that uses selected wavelengths of
light to illuminate the biological specimen. Specific molecules within the tissue absorb
light and emit light and other wavelengths. The exiting wavelengths are absorbed with
filters and emitted wavelengths are viewed in the microscope objectives. It is useful in
localizing antigen-antibody complexes within tissues
Polarizing microscope microscopes that detects linearly oriented structures of
living cells in tissue cultures or in fixed stained preparations. It restricts the light to
preferred directions and orientations making it possible to detect the presence or
orderly arrangements of fibrous proteins or arrays of long molecules. It is useful in
viewing the spindle fibers of dividing cells or the bonding pattern of striated muscles
Ultraviolet microscope this makes of the ultraviolet light by passing visible
light thru quartz or reflecting lenses. It is used more for the natural contrast it provides
owing to the absorption of nucleic acids and proteins in the ultraviolet regions
Dark field microscope this utilizes oblique light that do not enter the objective
lens. A special dark field is employed and a vacant field of view shows merely a dark
background while the object appears bright
X-ray microscope x-rays have shorter wavelengths and therefore have greater
penetration and theoretically a higher resolving power. Penetration technique allows
the specimen to be placed upon a photographic emulsion and exposed to soft
irradiation. The small x-ray picture obtained is enlarged or magnified optically

Microtechnique
Microtechnique is also known as
Histotechnique.
Microtechnique is a method of preparation of
tissue for microscopic examination.
Methods of Microtechnique
Paraffin wax method
It uses paraffin for impregnation of tissue at room
temperature.
It is the most common procedure used in the study of
tissue in the laboratory and hospital set-up
Frozen section method
It is a quick method in which the tissues are hardened
at low temperature by the use of cryostat or freezing
microtome
Celloidin method
It uses celloidin as embedding medium, which is useful
for large objects (eg. whole brain) and for hard and
brittle specimens (eg. cartilage)
Steps in Paraffin Method
Procurement of tissue specimen
Fixation submerging the specimen in a
chemical substance in order to preserve the
tissue
Purpose:
To preserve tissue morphology
To act as disinfectant
To kill microorganisms
To harden the tissue
To permit better staining reaction
Steps in Paraffin Method
Fixation
Fixative used:
10% neutral formalin (most commonly used)
10% formol saline
Bouins solution
Zenkers solution
Potassium bichromate
Osmic acid
Glutaraldehyde

Steps in Paraffin Method
Dehydration immersing the tissue in
increasing concentration of alcohol
Purpose: to remove water from the tissue
Dehydrating agent: graded concentration of ethyl
alcohol (65 to 100% alcohol)
Clearing (dealcoholization) replacing the
alcohol with clearing agents
Purpose: to impregnate tissue with paraffin
solvent, since alcohol is insoluble with paraffin; it
must be replaced by a clearing agent so that it can
be impregnated with paraffin wax
Steps in Paraffin Method
Clearing
Clearing agents
Xylene (Xylol) most commonly used
Chloroform
Benzene
Cedar wood oil
Ether
Carbon tetrachloride
Infiltration of tissue with melted paraffin wax
Steps in Paraffin Method
Embedding placing the tissue in paraffin
blocks
Purpose: paraffin penetrates all intercellular
spaces and even into the cells making the tissues
more resistant in sectioning
Sectioning cutting of tissue by use of
microtome about 3 5 um in thickness. The
cut tissue, paraffin ribonettes, are placed in a
basin of water
Placing the cut sections in clean glass slides.
Egg albumin is used as adhesive
Steps in Paraffin Method
Dissolving or melting the embedding medium
(paraffin wax) by passing the slide over a
flame (alcohol lamp or bunsen burner)
Rehydration immersing the tissue in
decreasing concentration of alcohol
Staining with appropriate stain
Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E stain) is usually used.
Hematoxylin, a basic dye, gives a bluish or purple
color tothe nucleus. Eosin, an acid dye, imparts a
reddish or pinkish color to the cytoplasm
Steps in Paraffin Method
Dehydration immersing again the tissue in
increasing concentration of alcohol
Clearing with clearing agents
Mounting placing cover slip with a few
drops of Canada balsam as a mounting
medium on processed tissue
Labelling label the organ on the prepared
slides
Cell
Comprise the greater part of
the body
Basic functional and structural
unit of living organisms
2 basic cell types
Eukaryotic cell
Cell type that has a true nucleus
surrounded by a nuclear membrane
or envelope
Prokaryotic cell
Lacks a nuclear envelope and the
nuclear substance is mixed or is in
direct contact with the rest of the
protoplasm

Principal Parts of the Cell
Cell membrane
Forms the outer boundary of
all eukaryotic cells
Also called plasma
membrane or plasmalemma
Cytoplasm
Colloidal suspension of the
cell
Nucleus
Archive of the cell, the
repository of its genetic
material

Example of cell
proerythroblast
Cell Membrane
Under light microscope, the plasmalemma is
invisible.
Under electron microscope, the cell
membrane appears as a trilaminar membrane
made up of lipoproteins.
The membrane is 7-11 mm in thickness and is
semi-permeable.
Essential Functions of Plasmalemma
Gives shape to the cell
Regulates the passage of ions and macromolecules in and
out of the cell
It contains devices for cell attachment
Involved in cell to cell communication
Have antigenic molecules that are the basis for
recognition and tissue specificity
Involved in ion pumps for regulating the internal
environment
Contains receptors for hormones
Mechanism for generating messenger molecules that
activate the cells physiological responses to stimuli
Cell Membrane
Within the membrane, the lipids are presumably
most stable when organized into a double layer
with their hydrophobic (non-polar) chains
directed toward the center of the membrane
and their hydrophilic heads directed outward
that lie next to the enveloping protein layer.
The presence of a continuous hydrophobic
region could explain the low permeability of
many membranes to water-soluble compounds
and their high permeability to lipid-soluble
materials.
Cell Membrane
Cell Membrane
The proteins, which constitute a major
molecular component of the membrane, can
be divided into 2 groups.
Integral proteins represent a class of proteins
that are directly incorporated within the lipid
bilayer.
Peripheral proteins exhibit a lesser association
with membrane surfaces.
Cell Membrane
The cell coat is a surface coat made up of
carbohydrate rich or polysaccharide
components of the integral glycolipids and
oligosaccharides.
This is found covering the cell membrane
specialized for secretions like in the gastro-
intestinal tract.
Specializations of Plasmalemma
Junctional complexes
Invaginations
Microvilli
Stereocilia
Cilia

Junctional Complexes
Structures that provide for cell attachment.
Four types of cellular attachments:
Macular adherens
Zonula adherens
Zonula occludens
Nexus
Macula Adherens
Also known as desmosome.
Complex disk-shaped structure or cytoplasmic
face of cell membrane of 2 neighboring cells
with a spot weld configuration.
Points of firm intercellular adhesions
Found in stratified epithelia of mouth,
esophagus, vagina and skin
Serve as sites of attachments of the
cytoskeleton to the cell surface and sites of
cell to cell adhesions
Zonula Adherens
Intermediate junctions of fascia adherens
Cellular ring of attachments which increases
the surface contact of cells
The intercellular space is larger than normal
and is filled with electron dense amorphous
materials
Found in intercalated discs of cardiac muscles
and is referred to as fascia adherens
Zonula Occludens
Also known as tight junctions
Has a distinctive reticular pattern found in
epithelium of urinary bladder, GIT and inter-
endothelial contacts of brain-tissue capillaries
In this type, the cell coat is not present and the
outer leaflets of the opposing cell membranes
have fused and become a single leaflet
Importance is in the formation of a barrier that
prevents the free passage across the epithelium
Nexus
Also known as gap junction
Communicating junction found in epithelial,
muscular and nervous tissues
These are regions of low electrical resistance
for cell to cell propagation or excitation-
contraction, impulse formation and also are
preferred crossing over points for molecules
being transported from one cell to the next
Significance is for cell to cell communication
Invaginations
Modification of cell membranes in the form of
infoldings or vesicular pits
Infolding
This greatly increases the cell surface
Vesicular pit
This type occurs as pinocytic or phagocytic
vesicles
Vesicular Pit
Pinocytic vesicles are drop-like invaginations of the
cell membrane. They participate in the uptake of
extracellular materials called endocytosis, as well
as in discharge of aggregations of intercellular
materials called exocytosis. Pinocytosis literally
means cell drinking
Phagocytic vesicles are larger vesicles which are
involved in phagocytosis which literally means cell
engulfing
Both pinocytic vesicles and phagocytic vesicles that
break off from the cell membrane are referred to
as phagosomes

Microvilli
Fingerlike projection
of absorptive
epithelial cells on
free surfaces of cell
membranes
Striated border =
found in the
epithelium of the GIT
Brush border = found
in the epithelium of
PCT of the kidneys

Electron microscopy of kidney
Stereocilia
Long process in the
apical region of cell
membranes
Non-motile cilia and
does not have the
structure of cilia
Found in the
epithelium of the
epididymis
Cilia
Elongated hair-like process, motile structure on
the surface epithelium
Its motility is characterized by a rapid forward
stroke and a slow backward stroke
Especially found lining the respiratory passages
Cytoplasm
Colloidal suspension of the cell
Composed of a matrix, termed the cytosol,
in which several structures are embedded
classified into three groups namely:
Organelles
Inclusions
Cytockeleton
Organelles of the Cytoplasm
The structures known as organelles present in
all eukaryotic cells have a limiting membrane
and contain enzymes that participate in
cellular metabolic activity
These are permanent components of the
cytoplasm
Organelles of the Cytoplasm
The different metabolically active internal organs
carrying out essential specific functions are the
following:
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
Mitochondrion
Ribosome
Lysosome
Centriole
Peroxisome

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Extensive system of membrane bounded
canaliculi
Consists of loose network of branching and
anastomosing tubules throughout the
cytoplasm, the tubules may be expanded
locally into broad flat saccules called cisternae
2 forms of Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(granular endoplasmic reticulum)
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(agranular endoplasmic reticulum)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Generally takes the form of parallel stack of
flattened cisternae, the membrane of which often
show continuities with those of nuclear envelope
The cisternae have ribosomes attached on the
surface of their membrane.
Synthesizes protein for export as a secretory
product

Electron micrograph of a type II cell protruding into the alveolar lumen. Arrows
indicate lamellar bodies containing newly synthesized pulmonary surfactant. RER,
rough endoplasmic reticulum; G, Golgi complex; RF, reticular fibers. Note the
microvilli of the type II cell and the junctional complexes (JC) with the type I
epithelial cell. x17,000. (Courtesy of MC Williams.)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Also takes the form of a membranous network
within the cell.
Its ultrastructure differs from the granular
endoplasmic reticulum in 2 important ways.
Lacks the associated ribosomes
Its cisternae are more likely to appear as a
profussion of interconnected channels of variable
shapes and sizes than as a stack of flattened
cisternae
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Associated with specialized functions in
certain cell types.
Involved in the synthesis of triglycerides, glycogen,
cholesterol and steroid hormones
In the liver, involved in detoxification of exogenous
lipid soluble drugs
In muscle cells, involved in contraction processes,
where it is known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum,
which participates in sequestration and release of
calcium ions that regulate muscular contraction
Golgi Complex
Also known as Golgi apparatus or dictysome
Involved in secretory activity of the cell either
distributed throughout the cytoplasm or
confined to a zone near the nucleus
depending upon the cell type
Under electron microscope, the Golgi
apparatus appears as several membrane
limitted flattened saccules or cisternae, with
associated vacuoles and vesicles, stacked in
parallel arrays
Golgi Complex
Site of concentration, chemical modification,
storage of secretory product and packaging of
secretory products of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Mitochondrion
Under light microscope, appears as rods or
filaments in both living and fixed cells. It
measures about 0.5 to 1 um wide and 2 to 10
um in length.
Under electron microscope, it has a double
membrane with the inner membrane
exhibiting folds called cristae. The cristae
amplify the surface area of the enzyme rich
membrane to increase efficiency of organelles
in generating energy
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasmic structure that provides for
biosynthesis and motor activity of cells.
They transform with high efficiency the
chemical energy of metabolites present in the
cytoplasm into available energy that is easily
accessible to the cell. These substances is
typified by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Referred to as the powerhouse of the cell
Ribosome
Composed of a smaller and a larger subunit
The small subunit contains a single large molecule
of RNA and some 30 associated small proteins
The larger subunit which is adjacent to the
membrane consists of 2 molecules of RNA and
about 40 associated proteins
Under electron microscope, ribosomes
appears as dense granules
Ribosome
The ribonucleoprotein of the ribosome is largely
responsible for the affinity of the cytoplasm for
basic dye. Hence, by light microscope, areas rich
in ribosomes are intensely basophilic.
They may take the form of:
Free ribosomes occur singly free in the cytoplasmic
matrix. In synthetically active cells, the great majority of
ribosomes occur in clusters of 10 to 20, called polyribosomes or
polysomes. These ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis
for intracellular use.
Attached ribosomes involved in the synthesis of proteins
destined for export from the cell as a secretory product
Lysosome
Membrane bounded vesicles that contain large
variety of hydrolytic enzymes active in acidic pH,
whose main function is related to
intracytoplasmic digestions
Highly heterogenous group of bodies so diverse
in size, shape and internal organization that no
single description encompasses all of their
variation. In general, they are dense bodies, 0.25
to 0.5 um in diameter limited by a membrane.
They are ovoid or irregular in outline. Enzymes
contained in lysosomes are acid hydrolases (eg.
acid phosphatase)

Lysosome
Two types of lysosomes
Primary lysosomes small vesicles containing the inactive
enzyme
Secondary lysosomes have been involved in enzymatic
activities
Another function of lysosomes concerns with
turnover of the cells organelles.
Sequestration and digestion of the cells organelles
called autophagy. The primary lysosomes with
ingested organelles are called autophagosmes
In pathologic conditions, the lysosomes may
rupture, release their enzymes, and ultimately
destroy the cell from within, called autolysis
Centrioles
Under light microscope, a pair of short rods that
determine the polarity of the cell
Under electron microscope, they appear as short,
cylindrical structures, embedded in the walls are
nine evenly spaced triplets of microtubules
Considered as the center of activities associated
with cell division
Self-duplicating organelles and are prominent in
mitosis
Peroxisomes
Also known as microbodies
Spherical in shape and has a single limiting
membrane
Contain several enzymes, such as catalase, urase,
oxidase and d-amino acids produced by bacteria
in the digestive tract and absorbed by the body,
and to the beta-oxidation of fatty acids
Abundant in the liver, kidneys, bronchioles and
odontoblasts
Inclusions
Generally, temporary components of certain
cells. They usually appear as vacuoles, granules,
globules and a diversity of sizes and shapes.
They are inert accumulations of metabolites or
cell products such as:
Stored food
Crystals
Pigments
Secretory granules
Cytoskeleton
Structural framework of the cell composed of
several filamentous components
Important functions include:
Maintenance of cell shape
Stabilization of cell attachments
Plays a role in endocytosis
Movements of local specializations of the cell
Cell motility
Examples of cytoskeletons:
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubular lattices

Examples of cytoskeletons:
Microtubules
Rod-like structures with variable lengths, composed of
proteinaceous heterodimeric subunits known as tubulin
dimers (alpha and beta tubulins)
Play a significant role in the development and
maintenance of cell form
Have a major role in intercellular transport of other
organelles
Provide basis for several complex cytoplasmic organelles,
including centrioles, cilia and flagella
Microfilaments
Contractile filaments of actin-myosin filaments
Responsible for visco-elastic properties and contractility of the
cytoplasm
Necessary for cell motility
Intermediate filaments
Type of filament whose cross-section falls between
microtubules and microfilaments, hence intermediate
filaments
Identified by immuno-chemical analysis as keratins, desmin,
vimentin, neurofilaments and glial filaments, found
respectively in epithelium, muscles, mesenchymal cells,
neurons and glial cells

Examples of cytoskeletons:
Examples of cytoskeletons:
Microtubular lattices
3 dimensional lattices of slender strands in cytoplasmic
matrix forming a gel, solid phase linking together the outer
filamentous components and organelles into a single
structural and functional unit
Nucleus
Archive of the cell, the repository of its genetic
material
Found in all cells, except in mature
erythrocytes and blood platelets
Usually basophilic in stain because of the
presence of nucleic acids
Appears as a rounded or elongated structure,
usually in the center of the nucleus, but in
some cells are peripherally located
Nucleus
Components of the Nucleus
Nuclear envelope
This is a bilayer, membrane of lipoprotein
separated by a narrow space called the
perinuclear space or cisternae
Nuclear pores
Openings in the nuclear envelope which are
covered with a thin diaphragm.
These provide ionic transport from the cytoplasm
to the nucleoplasm
Components of the Nucleus
Chromatin
Composed of colloid strands of DNA bounded to
basic proteins histones
Carries most of the genetic information
2 types of chromatin
Euchromatin made up of loose network of chromatin
fibrils. These are metabolically active
Heterochromatin made up of condensed network of
chromatin, which appears as coarse granules or patches.
These are metabolically inert.
Rod-shaped or thread-like structures made up of
masses of heterochromatin.
In man, chromosomes are 46 in number (or 23 pairs)

Components of the Nucleus
Nucleolus
Rounded, refractile body, eccentrically located in
the nucleus
Synthesizes RNA and basic proteins
Under electron microscope, it consists of 3 parts:
Nucleolemma pars granulosa with dense filaments
Pars fibrosa amorphous part of nucleolus
Nucleolus associated chromatin dispersed filaments
of DNA, which permeates the other 2 regions
Nucleoplasm
Amorphous matrix that fills the space between
the chromatin and the nucleoli in the nucleus

Nucleus
During cell death, nuclear changes that may
take place include:
Pyknosis
Shrinkage of the nucleus
Karyorhexis
Fragmentation of the nucleus
Karyolysis
Dissolution of the nucleus
Thank you very much
for your kind attention!