3

rd
Term S.Y. 2010-2011
Group 1
04 January 2011
I. Psychrometry
II. Air Conditioning System
III. Heat Load Estimation
IV. Practical Air Conditioning System
V. Air Distribution System
VI. Piping System
VII. Equipment Selection
VIII. Refrigerated Load
IX. Ice Manufacturing
I. Heat Load
II. Air Distribution
III. Equipment Selection
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning (Chapters
14 & 15) by C.P. Arora
Carrier System Design Manual Part I, II, & III
Mechanical Engineering Tables and Charts
Latest Edition by MRII
Refrigeration (Chapter X: Cooling Load
Calculation) by Dossat (SI Edition)
Kent Handbook Power Volume (Section 11:
Ice Manufacturing)
08 January 2011
Chapter 14: Properties of Moist Air; Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning by C.P. Arora


Dry air and water vapor form a binary
mixture. The properties of moist air are called
psychrometric properties and the subject
which deals with the behavior of moist air is
known as psychrometry.
Specific or absolute humidity or humidity
ratio or moisture content as it is variously
called denoted by the symbol is defined as
the ratio of the mass of water vapor (w.v.) to
the mass of dry air (d.a.) in a given volume of
the mixture. Thus



Where the subscripts a and v refer to dry air
and water vapor respectively.
v a
a v
m
m
v
e
v
= =
Since p denotes the actual total atmospheric
pressure, then from Daltons Law



So that,


a v
p p p = +
0.622
v
v
p
p p
e =

The concept of specific humidity is that if we take

1 kg of dry air


Then the mass of water vapor associated with
this dry air, in the same volume is


so that the total mass of this volume of moist air
is
.



1
a
m kg =
v
m kg e =
(1 ) m kg e = +
The temperature is called the dew point
temperature (DPT). It is the temperature to
which moist air must be cooled at constant
pressure before condensation of moisture
takes place.

The DPT can be found by knowing, from the
steam tables, the saturation temperature
at the partial pressure of the water vapor.
d
t
d
t
v
p
PROBLEM
In a dew point apparatus a metal beaker is
cooled by gradually adding ice water to the
water initially at room temperature. The
moisture from the room air begins to
condense on the beaker when its temperature
is 12.8C. If the room temperature is 21C
and the barometric pressure is 1.01325 bar,
find the partial pressure of water vapor in the
room air and parts by mass of water vapor in
the room air.
SOLUTION
Partial pressure of water vapor at DPT 12.8C

Partial pressure of dry air



Specific humidity



2
1.479 kN/m
v
p =
2
101325 1479 99846 N/m
a v
a
p p p
p
=
= =
1479
0.622 0.622
99846
v v
a a
m p
m p
e = = =
SOLUTION
Specific humidity



Parts by mass of water vapor

w.v.
0.009214
d.a.
kg
kg
e =
0.009214 w.v.
0.00913
1 1.009214 mixture
v
m kg
m kg
e
e
= = =
+
The degree of saturation is a measure of the
capacity of air to absorb moisture.

It is denoted by the symbol


1
1
v s
s s v
p p p
p p p
e

e
(

= =
(

Relative humidity denoted by the symbol or
RH is defined as the ratio of the mass of
water vapor in a certain volume of moist air at
a given temperature to the mass of water
vapor in the same volume of saturated air at
the same temperature.
v s
s v
p
RH
p
v
|
v
= = =
The enthalpy of moist air is obtained by the
summation of the enthalpies of the
constituents. Thus, the enthalpy of moist air
h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry
air and associated water vapor, i.e.,



per kg of dry air, where subscripts a are for
dry air and v are for the water vapor part.
a v
h h h e = +


Where t is in C



Where t is in C

1.005 (2500 1.88 ) kJ/kg d.a. h t t e = + +
0.24 (1061 0.444 ) Btu/lbm d.a. h t t e = + +
PROBLEM: A mixture of dry air and water
vapor is at a temperature of 21C under a
total pressure of 736 mmHg. The dew point
temperature is 15C. Find:
i. Partial pressure of water vapor
ii. Relative humidity
iii. Specific humidity
iv. Specific enthalpy of water vapor by the three
methods of Fig. 14.5
v. Enthalpy of air per kg of dry air
vi. Specific volume of air per kg of dry air
SOLUTION:
i. From steam tables, the partial pressure of
water vapor at 15C DPT is


ii. Saturation pressure of water vapor at 21C DBT


Relative humidity


.
2
12.79 mmHg = 12.79 (133.5) = 1707.5 N/m
v
p =
2
18.65 mmHg = 18.65 (133.5) = 2489.8 N/m
s
p =
12.79
100 100 68.58%
18.56
v
s
p
p
| = = =
iii. Specific humidity




iv. Latent heat of vaporization of water at dry
bulb and dew-point temperatures of air

(12.79)
0.622 0.622
(736 12.79)
0.011 kg w.v./kg d.a.
v
a
p
p
e
e
= =

=
21
15
( ) 2452 kJ/kg
( ) 2466.2 kJ/kg
fg C
fg C
h
h

=
=
Specific enthalpy of water vapor from Fig. 14.5
by the three methods






Note: The three values are extremely close to
each other.
(4.1868)(21) 2452 2450 kJ/kg w.v.
(4.1868)(15) 2466.2 1.88(21 15)
2540.3 kJ/kg w.v.
2501 1.88(21) 2540.5 kJ/kg w.v.
C
A
A
B
h
h
h
h
= + =
= + +
=
= + =
v. Enthalpy of air using the value of specific
enthalpy of water vapor from the empirical relation





vi. Specific volume of air is equal to the volume of 1
kg of dry air or 0.011 kg of water vapor. Based on
the dry air part


.
1.005(21) 0.011(2540.5)
21.1 27.9 49.0 kJ/kg d.a.
a v
h h h
h
h
e = +
= +
= + =
3
287.3(273 21)
0.875 m /kg d.a.
(723.21)(133.5)
a
a
a
R T
p
v v
+
= = = =
The dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed
to the air and measures the actual
temperature of air.

The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is
covered by a wick thoroughly wetted by
water.

The temperature which is measured by the
wick-covered bulb of such a thermometer
indicates the temperature of liquid-water in
the wick and is called the wet bulb
temperature.
All data essential for the complete
thermodynamic and psychrometric analysis of
air-conditioning processes can be summarized in
a psychrometric chart.

The chart which is most commonly used is the
-t chart, i.e., a chart which has specific
humidity or water vapor pressure along the
ordinate and the dry bulb temperature along the
abscissa.

The chart is normally constructed for a standard
atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or 1.0132
bar, corresponding to the pressure at the mean
sea level.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART Skeleton
Dry-bulb temperature = The temperature of
air as registered by an ordinary thermometer.

Wet-bulb temperature = The temperature
registered by a thermometer whose bulb is
covered by a wetted wick and exposed to a
current of rapidly moving air.

Dewpoint temperature = The temperature at
which condensation of moisture begins when
the air is cooled.
Relative Humidity = Ratio of the actual water
vapor pressure of the air to the saturated
water vapor pressure of the air at the same
temperature.

Specific Humidity or Moisture Content = The
weight of water vapor in grains or pounds of
moisture per pound of dry air.
Enthalpy = A thermal property indicating the
quantity of heat in the air above an arbitrary
datum, in Btu per pound of dry air. The
datum for dry air is 0F, and for the moisture
content, 32F water.

Specific Volume = The cubic feet of the
mixture per pound of dry air.

Sensible Heat Factor = The ratio of sensible
to total heat.
Pounds of Dry Air = The basis for all
psychrometric calculations. Remains constant
during all psychrometric processes.

Note: The dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dewpoint
temperatures and the relative humidity are so
related that, if two properties are known, all other
properties shown may then be determined. When
air is saturated, dry-bulb, wet-bulb, and dewpoint
temperatures are all equal.

CARRIER PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART Skeleton
Edited






Cooling coil
Mixing Box
1
2
2
Blowe
r
In RA
m
1
2
DB
1
DB
2
WB2
WB1
h
2
h
1
RC = m(h1 h2)
FIGURE 1


RETURN AIR


SUPPLY AIR


Cooling coil
Mixing Box
1
2
3
1
2
DB
1
DB
2
WB2
WB1
h
2
h
1
DB
3
WB3
h
3
3
w1
w2
w3
FIGURE 2

Equations that can be derived based on the
Psychrometric Chart (Figure 2):


Example 15.1 (p. 475)

30 m
3
/min of a stream of moist air at 15C DBT
and 13C WBT is mixed with 12 m
3
/min of a second
stream at 25C DBT and 18C WBT. Barometric
Pressure is one standard atmosphere. Determine
the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of the
resulting mixture.

Required: WB3 and DB3

SOLUTION




Cooling coil
Mixing Box
15C DB
13C WB
30 m
3

/min

25C DB
18C WB
12 m
3

/min

1
2
25
C
15
C
13C
18C
V1=
0.86
V2=
0.825





Then,
Example 15.2 (p.476)

A stream of moist air at 2C DBT and 80% RH
mixes with another stream of moist air at 30C
DBT and 10C DPT in the ratio by mass of one
part of the first to tow parts of the second.
Calculate the temperature and specific
humidity of the air after mixing.


BYPASS FACTOR
SOLUTION




Cooling coil
Mixing Box
15C DB
13C WB
30 m
3

/min

25C DB
18C WB
12 m
3

/min

1
2
25
C
15
C
13C
18C
Definition

The following figure shows the process that the
moist air undergoes while flowing over a surface
.
The air enters at 1 and leaves at 2 when the
surface is maintained at S.
The state of the contacted air is that of saturated
air at the temperature of the surface. There is
thus the equivalent of perfect contact of a
definite portion of the air particles with the
surface.
The uncontacted air remains at the entering
state.

The end state of the air is the same as that
produced by the complex entering of the
contacted and uncontacted particles.

hs
h2
h1
S
w3
1
t1 t2 ts
2 w2
w1
t
w
Thus one can define a bypass factor of the
apparatus representing the fraction of
uncontacted air in terms of 1,2,and S as:



Conversely, one can define a contact factor
(1-X) representing a fraction of the contacted
air.


Simple Air conditioning system
and state and mass rate of
supply air

RETURN AIR AT t1, w1

SUPPLY AIR AT ts, ws


Room at
t1, w1
AHU
Cooling coil
Mixing Box
Formulas:

Sensible Heat Balance:

Latent Heat Balance:

Base on Enthalpy:
Find the resulting dry bulb temperature of the
mixture given the following conditions:

OUTDOOR AIR RETURN AIR
m= 2 kg/s m= 3kg/s
35
O
CDB 24
O
CDB
25
O
CWB 50% RH
SOLUTION






2kg/s
35
O
CDB
25
O
CWB



Figure

m= 3kg/s
50% RH
24
O
CDB



WBm
Wm
35oC 28.4o
C
24oC
25oC
OA
50%
RM
MIX

Equation:







By: Bautista, Norman George V.
Results from any one single source of heat.
Summation of the heat which evolves from
different sources.
Heat that leaks from the outside space.
Heat that enters the space by radiation.
Heat that enters the space through doors and
windows.
Heat given of by a warm product.
Heat given by people.
Heat given by equipments.
In cases where the refrigerated load was
calculated on a 24 hour basis the load may be
determined directly in KW.
Equation:


Where Q = required equipment capacity, KW
RT= running time, hrs.
qt = total cooling load, KW
A measure of the heat flow rate by
conduction through walls of the refrigerated
space from outside to the inside.
Also called as the wall leakage load

Equation:


Where: Q = rate of heat transferred, W.
A = outside surface area of wall, m
2

U = overall coefficient of heat transmission
(W/ m
2
K), Table 10-2


TD = temperature difference across the wall
) )( )( ( TD U A Q=
Determine the heat flow rate in watts through
a wall 3m by 6m. If the U factor for the wall is
0.37 W/ m
2
K and the temperature on one
side of the wall is 4 C while the temperature
on the other side is 35 C.

Given: U = 0.37 W/ m
2
-K
T
1
= 4 C
T
2
= 35 C

Solution :
Total Wall Area = 3m x 6m = 18 m
2

TD = T
2
- T
1
= 35-4 = 31 K
Q = AUTD = 18 m
2
(0.37 W/ m
2
-K)(31 K)
Q = 206 W or 0.206 kW
Is the property of a material describing its
ability to conduct heat. W/(Km)
Can be found on Table 10-1.
Equation:

Where: C = thermal conductance
k = thermal conductivity
x = thickness
x k C / =
Determine the thermal conductance for a 125
mm thickness of polyurathane.

Solution:
From table 10-1, k = 0.125 W/m-K
C = 0.025 / 0.125
C = 0. 2 W/m
2
K

Thermal resistance is a measure of a
material's ability to resist heat transfer. The
more a material is able to block heat transfer
through its surface, the greater
its thermal resistance.
Equation:

k x k c U R / / 1 / 1 / 1 = = = =
When a wall is constructed of several layers of
different materials,



Where: = convection coefficient of
inside wall.
= convection coefficient of outside wall.
1/fi
Assuming a wind velocity of 3.35 m/s,
calculate the value of U for a wall constructed
of 200 mm sand aggregate building blocks
insulated with 75 mm of polyurethane and
finished on the inside with 13 mm of cement
plaster.
Solution:
From table 10 1:
200 mm sand aggregate block, C = 5.11
Polyurethane, k = 0.025
Cement plaster, k = 0.72
fi = 9.37
fo = 22.7

1/U = 3.37
U = 0.297 W/ m
2
- K

37 . 9 / 1 72 . 0 / 013 . 0 025 . 0 / 075 . 0 11 . 5 / 1 7 . 22 / 1 / 1 + + + + = U
A walk-in cooler 5m x 7m x 3m high is located in
the southeast corner of a store building in an
area where the outdoor design DB temperatures
in summer and winter are 35 C and -6 C. The
south and east walls of the cooler are adjacent to
and a part of the south and east walls of the
store building. The store has a 4 m ceiling so
that there is a 1 m clearance between the top of
the cooler and the ceiling of the store.
The store is air conditioned and the
temperature inside the store is
maintained at approximately 26 C. The
inside design temperature for the cooler
is 2 C. The north and west (inside) walls,
floor and ceiling are insulated with 75
mm of closed-cell (smooth surface)
polystyrene, and the south and east walls
are insulated with 100 mm of closed-cell
polystyrene. Determine the wall gain load
in kilowatts.
7 m
5
m
Outdoor Design
Temp, 35 C
150 mm clay
tile
150 mm
polystyrene
Cooler 2 C
3m ceiling
Partitions
insulated with
75 mm
polystyrene
Inside Temperature 26
C
Ceiling 4m
K (polystyrene) = 0.029 W/m-K
U (north and west) = 0.346 W/m
2
- K
U (south and east) = 0.267 W/m
2
K

N, W, ceiling = (71)(0.346)(26-2) = 589.6 W
S = (15)(0.267)(37-2) = 140.2 W
E = (21)(0.267)(38-2) = 201.9 W
Floor = (35)(0.346)(25-2) = 215 W
Total wall gain load = 1147 W or 1.147 kW

A warm outside air enters the space to replace
the more dense cold air which is lost from the
refrigerated space through the open door.
Equation:

Where: Q = air change load, kW
m = mass of air entering, kg
ho = enthalpy of outside air
hi = enthalpy of inside air
) ( hi ho m Q =
The rate of air infiltration into a refrigerated
space is 8 L/s. If the inside of the cooler is
maintained at 2 C and the outside dry bulb
temperature and humidity are 30 C and 50%
respectively, determine the air change load in
kilowatts.
Solution:
By interpolation in Table 10-6A, the enthalpy
change factor is 0.0598 kJ/L

Air change load = (8L/s)(0.0598 kJ/L)
Air change load = 0.478 kW
When a product enters a storage space at a
temperature above the temperature of the
space, the product will give off heat to the
space until it cools to the space temperature.

Equation:

Where: Q = quantity of heat, kJ/kg
m = mass of the product, kg
Cp = specific heat Above freezing Temp.
TD = temperature change in the product
temperature, K

) (TD mCp Q =


This equation is used to know the product
load at a specific time.
Thirty-five hundred kilograms of fresh beef
enter a chilling cooler at 39C and are chilled
to 7C each day. Compute the product load in
kilojoules.
Solution:
Q= mCp(TD)
= (3500)(3.14)(39-7)
Q = 351,680 kJ


Determine the product load in kilowatts
assuming that the beef described in the
previous example is chilled in 20h.

Solution:



Q = 4.88 kW
Fruits and vegetables are still alive after
harvesting and continue to undergo changes
while in storage.
Respiration is a process during which oxygen
from the air combines with the carbohydrates
in the plant tissue and results in the release
of carbon dioxide and heat.
Equation:

Where:
m = mass of product, kg
r
h
= respiration rate, W/kg

A storage cooler 6m x 4m x 3.4m high is
insulated with 100 mm of glass fiberboard.
Overall wall thickness is approximately 200
mm. The outside temperature is 30C and
usage is average. Twelve hundred and fifty
kilograms of wet mixed vegetables are
cooled, 25C to the storage temperature of
5C each day. Compute the required
equipment capacity based on a 16-h/day.
Outside surface area
= 2(6x4)+2(6x3.4)+2(4x3.4)
= 116 m
2

Inside Volume = 5.6 x 3.6 x 3 m = 60.5 m
3

Glass fiberboard, k = 0.036 W/m K
100 mm thick insulation, k = 0.035 W/m-k
U = 0.31 W/m
2
-K
By interpolation, (table 10-7)
Infiltration Rate = 8.13 L/s
Assume a 50 % RH, enthalpy change factor =
0.0536 kJ/L
Cp of wet mixed veg = 3.77 kJ/kg-L
r
h
= 0.097 W/kg

Wall gain load = (116)(0.31)(30-5) = 899
W or 0.899 kW
Air change load = (8.13)(0.0536) =
0.43kW
Product cooling load =
Respiration load = (1250)(0.097) = 121.5
W or 0.121 kW
Sum of heat loads = 1.729 kW
Safety factor (10%) = 0.173 kW
Total cooling load = 1.902 kW
Required equipment capacity =