Welding

Prepared By:
Dhananjay Pradhan
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engg. Department
Krishna Engineering College











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TYPES OF SOLID STATE
WELDING

COLD WELDING
ULTRASONIC
WELDING
FRICTION
WELDING

RESISTANCE
WELDING
EXPLOSION
WELDING
DIFFUSION
BONDING
COLD WELDING
Pressure is applied to the
work pieces, through
either dies or rolls,.
Both the parts should be
ductile because of the
plastic deformation
involved
It can be used to join small
w/p made of soft, ductile
metals.

ULTRASONIC WELDING
The faying surfaces are
subjected to a static
normal force and
oscillating shearing
stresses.
Shearing stresses are
applied by the tip of a
transducer.
Range of frequency of
oscillation is generally
10khz-75khz.
Temp. required in the
weld zone is usually in the
range from 1\3 to 1\2 of
the melting point of metals
joined.

FRICTION WELDING
Heat required for welding
is generated through
friction at the interface of
the two components being
joined.
Oxides& other
contaminants at the
interface are removed by
the radial outward
movement of the hot metal
at the interface.
The shape of welded joint
depends on the axial
pressure applied.
WELD ZONE
The weld zone is usually
confined to a narrow region
which depends on the
following:
1. The amount of heat
generated.
2. The thermal conductivity of
the materials.
3. The mechanical properties of
the materials at elevated
temperatures.
4. The shape of the welded joint
depends on the rotational
speed and axial pressure
applied.
INERTIA FRICTION
WELDING
The energy required for friction heating is
supplied by the kinetic energy of a
flywheel.
The weld is completed when the flywheel
has come to a stop.
LINEAR FRICTION WELDING
The two components to be joined is
subjected to a linear reciprocating motion,
as opposed to a rotary motion.
The process is capable of welding square or
rectangular components, as well as rounded
parts made of metals or plastics.
FRICTION STIR WELDING
A third body is rubbed against the two surfaces to
be joined in the form of a small rotating non
consumable tool that is plunged into the joint.
The thickness of the joint can be as little as 1mm
and so much as 30mm.
FSW welds are of high quality, with minimal
pores and with uniform material structure.
Used for welding of aerospace alloys, polymers &
composite materials.

RESISTANCE WELDING
Heat required for welding is produced by means of
electrical resistance across the two components to
be joined.
These processes do not require consumable
electrodes, shielding gases or flux.
Actual temp.rise at the joint depends on the
specific heat and on the thermal conductivity of
the metals to be joined.
It is mostly used process in sheet metal fabrication
and in automotive-body assembly.
TYPES OF RESISTANCE
WELDING
SPOT WELDING
SEAM WELDING
HIGH FREQUENCY
RESISTANCE
WELDING
PROJECTION
WELDING
FLASH WELDING
STUD WELDING
PERCUSSION
WELDING
SPOT WELDING
The tips of two
opposing solid
cylindrical electrodes
touch a lap joint of
two sheet metals.
Pressure is applied
until the current is
turned off for strong
bond
SEAM WELDING
Electrodes are
replaced by rotating
wheels or rollers.
Seam welding
produces a joint that is
liquid tight and gas
tight.
HIGH FREQUENCY
RESISTANCE WELDING
This is similar to seam
welding, except that high
frequency current(up to
450khz) is employed.
Typical example is
production of butt welded
tubing where the current is
conducted through two
sliding contacts.
PROJECTION WELDING
High electrical resistance
at the joint is developed
by embossing one or more
projections on one of the
surface to be welded.
The electrodes, made of
copper- based alloys,and
water cooled to keep their
temp.low, are large and
flat.
FLASH WELDING
Heat is generated from the arc as the ends of the
two members begin to make contact and develop
an electrical resistance at the joint.
An axial force is applied at a controlled rate.
Weld is formed by plastic deformation.
Suitable for end to end or edge to edge joining of
sheets of similar or dissimilar metals.
Impurities and contaminants are squeezed out
during this operation, so the quality of the weld is
good.


Flash-Welding Process
STUD WELDING
It is also called stud arc
welding.
The stud serves as one
of the electrodes while
being joined to another
component.
A disposable ceramic
ring(ferrule is placed
around the joint to
concentrate heat
generated.
EXPLOSION WELDING
Pressure is applied by
detonating a layer of
explosive that has been
placed over one of the
components being joined.
Cold pressure welding by
plastic deformation takes
place.
Bond strength is very
high.
ARC WELDING
The heat required is obtained from
electrical energy.
An arc is produced between the tip of the
electrode and the w/p to be welded, by the
use of an AC or a DC power supply.
This flow of current between the electrode
and the work piece is better described as a
column of ionized gas called plasma.
TYPES-
1. Arc welding(consumable electrode)
2. Arc welding( non consumable electrode)
POLARITY
In straight polarity work piece is the
positive pole and electrode is negative.
In reverse polarity arrangement is just
reversed.
Polarity can be used to control the location
of the liberated heat.
If large deposits are to be made on heavy
work piece, straight polarity is used, while
if it is necessary to keep the w/p cool
reverse polarity is used.
ARC WELDING(CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE)

1. Shielded metal arc welding
2. Submerged arc
3. Gas metal arc (MIG)
4. Flux-cored arc
5. Electro gas
6. Electro slag
ARC WELDING( NON
CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
Typically it use a tungsten electrode.as
one pole of the arc,it generates the heat
required for welding.a shielding gas is
supplied from an external source.
1. Gas tungsten arc
2. Atomic hydrogen
3. Plasma arc
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING(SMAW)
Shielded arc welding is a fusion process where
heat is obtained from an electric arc which is
formed between a base metal and an electrode.
The electric arc is generated by touching the tip of
a coated electrode against a w/p and then
withdrawing it quickly to a distance sufficient to
maintain the arc.
Electrodes are in the shape of a thin, long stick, so
this process is also known as stick welding.
The electrode coating deoxidizes the weld
area and provides a shielding gas to protect
it from oxygen in the environment.
The polarity of a DC,i.e. the direction of
current flow, its selection depends on such
factors as type of electrode , the metals to
be welded, and the depth of the heated zone.


CHARACTERISTICS
+ Equipment is simple, very portable and less
expensive.
+ Welding can be done in virtually any position.
- Rate of metal deposition is not high.
- Welding is interrupted each time an electrode is
consumed, causing downtime and a wasted stub.
- Slag must be chipped and wire brushed from the
weld surface.
- Electrode selection and care are more critical for
welding hardenable steels than by some other
processes.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING(SAW)
The weld arc is shielded by a granular flux.it acts
as a thermal insulator, promoting deep penetration
of heat into the w/p.
Then flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow
through a nozzle.
It is fed automatically through a tube(welding
gun).
It is used to weld carbon, alloy steel and stainless
steel sheet or plate.

CHARACTERISTICS
+ Very high current can be used.
+ High deposition rate and good penetration.
+ The process is thermally efficient.
+ Each size of wire can be used over a wide
range of current settings.
+ The weld beads are extremely smooth.
- Weld can not be seen, it is more difficult to
guide it..
- It is largely limited to flat-position welding.
GAS METAL-ARC WELDING(MIG)
Weld area is shielded by an effectively inert
atmosphere of argon, helium, carbon
dioxide, or various gas mixtures.
Suitable for welding ferrous and nonferrous
metals and is used extensively in the metal-
fabrication industry.
CHARACTERISTICS
+ It can produce high quality welds at high
speeds .
+ There is no flux to remove.
+ It is a very versatile process, used on both
light and heavy structural plates.
+ It is possible to weld in all positions.
+ Deep penetration is possible.
+ Process can be used on out-of-position
welding in pulsed mode.

FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING
It is similar to gas metal arc welding, with
the exception that the electrode is tubular in
shape and filled with flux.
Cored electrodes produce a more stable arc,
improve weld contour, and produce better
mechanical properties of the weld metal.
CHARACTERISTICS
+ High deposition rate can be achieved.
+ It can be used for a wide range of metal
thicknesses.
+ Self-shielding process is relatively simple, and the
welding gun is relatively light and easy to use.
+ The deposition rate is about twice that of SMAW
for a comparable setup.
+ It can be used in any position in smaller-diameter
Wires.
- Flux-cored wire emits a large amount of welding
fume during operations.
- A equipped gun is required to draw off exhaust
fumes and improve visibility.


ELECTROGAS WELDING
EGW is used primarily for welding the edges of
sections vertically in one pass, with the pieces
placed edge to edge(butt joint).
It is classified as a machine-welding process,
because it requires special equipment.
The shielding is done by means of an inert gas.the
gas may be provided from an external source, or it
may be produced from flux cored electrode.
ELECTROSLAG WELDING
It is similar to electro gas welding.the main
diff. Is that the first arc is started and then
flux is added and then melted by the heat of
the arc.
The electrode may be consumable or
nonconsumable.
CHARACTERISTICS
+ It is automatic.
+ Heating is uniform, which keeps warpage to
a minimum.
+ Joint preparation is not required.
ELECTRODE COATINGS
Electrodes are coated with claylike materials that
include binders and powdered materials.the
coating,has the following basic functions-
1. To stabilize the arc.
2. To generate gases to act as a shield against the
surrounding atmosphere.
3. To control the rate at which the electrode melts.
4. To act as a flux to protect weld against
formation of oxides, nitrides and other
inclusions.
5. To add alloying elements to the weld zone to
enhance the properties of the joint
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC-WELDING
(GTAW)
GTAW formerly known as TIG welding.
The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire.it is
similar to metals to be welded, and flux is not
used.
A constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a
constant current level.
Welding with GTAW can be done without filler
metals-ex.close fit joints.
Contact of the electrode with the molten metal
pool should be avoided.
It is suitable for thin metals like aluminum.
CHARACTERISTICS
+ It is used to make high quality weld in almost all
metals and alloys, including high temp. alloys.
+ No flux is used, so almost no weld clean up is
required.
+ Very little weld spatter since the weld metal is not
carried across the arc.
+ Welding can be done in all positions.
+ The process is particularly well suited for welding
thin materials where a high quality finish is
desired,.
- It is relatively slow and not well suited for
welding heavier metals.
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING
(AHW)
AHW uses an arc in a shielding atmosphere
of hydrogen.
The arc is between two tungsten or carbon
electrodes.
W/p is not a part of the electrical circuit.
The hydrogen gas also cools the electrode.
PLASMA-ARC WELDING
(PAW)
A plasma is ionized hot gas, composed of
nearly equal numbers of electrons and
ions.
The arc is stable and reaches temp. as high
as 33,000degc.
PAW has higher energy concentration,
less thermal distortions and higher
welding speeds.

There are two methods of PAW-
1. Transferred arc- the w/p being welded is
part of the electrical circuit. The arc
transfers from the electrode to the w/p.
2. Non transferred arc- the arc occurs
between the electrode and the nozzle, and
the heat is carried to the w/p by plasma gas.

CHARACTERISTICS
+ Greater energy concentrations, improved arc
stability, higher welding speeds and lower width-
to-depth ratio of the weld bead for a given
penetrations.
+ More arc length flexibility is possible without
changing the bead width.
+ It ensures complete penetration and weld
uniformity.
+ Close-fitting backing bars are not required.
- Higher equipment cost compared to GMAW, short
life, need for greater welder knowledge, and a
high rate of inert gas consumption.
THERMIT WELDING(TW)
The process involves exothermic reactions
between metal oxides and metallic reducing
agents.
The most commonly used mixture is fine particles
of iron oxide, aluminum oxide, iron and
aluminum.
This non explosive mixture produces a max.
theoretical temp.of 3200degc in less than a
minute.
ELECTRON BEAM
WELDING(EBW)
The heat is generated by high velocity narrow
beam electrons.
The kinetic energy of electrons is converted into
heat as they strike the w/p.
The higher the vacuum, the more the beam
penetrates and the greater the depth-to-width ratio.
Typical application include welding of aircraft,
missile, nuclear and electronic components and of
gears and shaft for automotive industry.
LASER BEAM
WELDING(LBW)
LBW utilizes a high power laser beam as the
source of heat, to produce a fusion weld.
This process is particularly suitable for welding
deep and narrow joints.
Used in automotive industry,welding of
transmission components and electronic industry.
Laser beam may be pulsed for application such as
spot welding of thin materials.continuous beam
are used for deep welds on thick sections.
TYPES of Solid/Liquid Joining
SOLDERING
BRAZING
ADHESIVE BONDING
BRAZING
When filler material is copper alloy, the process is called
brazing.
Temp. is raised enough to melt the filler metal but not
the w/p.
The molten metal fills the closely fitting space by
capillary action.
In braze welding the filler metal is deposited at the joint
with a technique similar to oxyfuel gas welding.
The strength of the brazed joint depends on
1. Joint design
2. The adhesion at the interfaces between the w/ps and the
filler metal.
FILLER METALS
The choice of filler metal and of its composition
are important, in order to avoid embrittlement of
the joint, formation of brittle intermetallic
compounds at the joint and galvanic corrosion in
the joint.
Diffusion between the filler metal & the base
metal, the mechanical and metallurgical properties
of a joint can change in subsequent processing or
during the service life of a brazed component.
FLUXES
To prevent oxidation and to remove oxide films
from work piece surfaces, flux is essential in
brazing.
Brazing fluxes are generally made of borax, boric
acid fluorides & chlorides.
Wetting agents may also be added to improve both
the wetting characteristics of the molten filler
metal and the capillary action.
SOLDERING
In soldering, the filler metal, called solder,
melts at a relatively low temp.
Important characteristics for solders are
high wetting capability and low surface
tension.
Heat sources for soldering are usually
soldering irons, torches or ovens.
TYPES OF SOLDERS AND
FLUXES
Meaning of solder is to make solid melt at a temp. that is
the eutectic point of the solder alloy.
Solders have tin-lead alloys in various proportions.
Fluxes are used as they are in brazing, and for same
purpose.
Types
1. Inorganic acids or salts which clean the surface rapidly
after the soldering, the flux residues should be removed
by water to avoid corrosion.
2. Noncorrosive resin based fluxes, used in electrical
applications.
WELD DEFECTS
A welded joint may develop various
discontinuities.
The microstructure and grain size of the welded
joint depends on the amount of heat applied and
the consequent temp. rise, on the degree of prior
cold work of the metals, and on the rate of cooling
after the weld is produced.
Weld quality depends on many factors ,among
them the geometry of weld bead and the presence
of cracks, residual stresses, inclusions and oxide
films, etc.
Fusion Weld Zone
POROSITY
Porosity in weld is caused-
1. by gases released during melting of the weld
area but trapped during solidification,
2. by chemical reactions during welding,
3. by contaminants.
Porosity is generally in the shape of spheres or
of elongated pockets, and distribution of
porosity in the weld zone may be random, or
concentrated in a certain region.
Porosity in welds can be reduced by the
following practices:-
1. Proper selection of electrodes and filler
metals.
2. Improved welding technique, such as
preheating of the weld area or an increase
in the rate of heat input.
3. Proper cleaning, and the prevention of
contaminants from entering the weld zone.
4. Reduced welding speeds, to allow time for
gases to escape.
SLAG INCLUSIONS
Slag inclusions are compounds such as oxides,
fluxes, and electrode-coating materials.
If shielding gases are not effective during
welding, then contamination from environment
may also contribute in inclusions.
Slag inclusions can be prevented by:-
1. cleaning of weld bead surface before the next
layer is deposited.
2. providing enough shielding gas.
3. permit enough space for proper manipulation of
the puddle of molten weld metal.
INCOMPLETE FUSION AND
PENETRATION
Incomplete fusion produces poor weld
beads. A better weld can be obtained by:-
I. Raising the temp. of the base metal.
II. Cleaning the weld area, prior to welding.
III. Changing the joint design and type of
electrode.
IV. Providing enough shielding gas.
Incomplete penetration occurs when the
depth of the welded joint is insufficient.
Penetration can be improved by :-
1. Increasing the heat input.
2. Reducing the travel speed during the
welding.
3. Changing the joint design.
4. Ensuring that the surface to be joined fit
properly.


Incomplete Fusion
WELD PROFILE
It effects on the strength and appearance of the
weld.
It can signal incomplete fusion or the presence
of slag inclusions in multiple-layer welds.
1. UNDERFILLING:- results when the joint is not
filled with the proper amount of weld metal.
2. UNDERCUTTING:- results from the melting
away of the base metal and the consequent
generation of a groove in the shape of a sharp
recess or notch.it may lead to premature failure.
3. OVERLAP:- is a surface discontinuity caused
by poor welding practice and by the selection of
improper materials.
Discontinuities in Fusion Welds
CRACKS
Cracks may occur in various locations and
directions in the weld area.
These cracks generally result from the
following factors:-
1. Temp. gradients.
2. variations in the composition of the weld zone .
3. Embrittlement of grain boundaries.
4. Hydrogen embrittlement.
5. Inability of the weld metal to contract during
cooling.
Basic crack prevention measures

1. Change the joint design,to minimize stresses
from shrinkage during cooling.
2. Change the parameters, the procedures, and
the sequence of the welding process.
Cracks in Welded Joints
LAMELLAR TEARS
It may develop because of
shrinkage of the restrained
components in the
structure during cooling.
Such tears can be avoided
by providing for shrinkage
of the members or by
changing the joint design
to make the weld bead
penetrate the weaker
component more deeply.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Because of localized heating and cooling during
welding expansion and contraction of the weld
area causes residual stresses in the w/p.
Residual stresses can cause the following
defects:-
1. Distortion, warping, and buckling of the welded
parts.
2. Stress corrosion cracking.
3. Reduced fatigue life.
4. Further distortion, if a portion of the welded
structure is subsequently removed.
Residual Stresses Developed During
Welding
STRESS RELIEVING OF
WELDS
The problem caused by residual stresses, can be
reduced by preheating the base metal or the parts
to be welded.
Preheating reduces distortion by reducing the
cooling rate and the level of thermal stresses.
For multilayer welds , the first and last layers
should not be peened , in order to protect them
against possible peening damage.
Residual stresses can also be relieved or reduced
by plastically deforming the structure by a small
amount.
WELDABILITY
It is defined as its capacity to be welded into
a specific structure that has certain
properties and characteristics and will
satisfactorily meet service requirements.
Mechanical and physical properties affects
weldability.
TESTING WELDED JOINTS
The quality of a welded joint is
established by testing.
Standard test procedures are:-
1. DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
2. NONDESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES


DESTRUCTIVE TECHNIQUES
1. Tension test
2. Tension-shear test
3. Bend test
4. Fracture toughness test
5. Corrosion and creep tests


NONDESTRUCTIVE
TECHNIQUES
Welded structures often have to be tested
nondestructively, particularly for critical
applications where weld failures can be
catastrophic, such as pressure vessels, load
bearing structural members and power plants.
NDT consists of
1. visual
2. radiographic
3. magnetic-particle
4. liquid-penetration
5. ultrasonic