By

Khairun Nisa Berawi

THE
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
FUNCTION OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Ingestion
Introduction of solid or liquid food into the stomach
2. Mastication
The process by which food taken into the mouth is chewed by the teeth
3. Propulsion
The movement of food from one end of the digestive tract to the other
4. Mixing
Some contraction move the food back and forth within the digestive tract to mix it
with digestives secretion and to help break into smaller pieces
Function of ..
5. Secretion
As food moves through the digestive tract, secretion are added to lubricate, liquefy,
and digest the food
6. Digestion
The breakdown of large organic molecules into their components parts
7. Absorption
The movement of molecules out of the digestive tract and into the circulation or
into the lymphatic system
8. Elimination
The process by which the waste products of digestion are removed from the body
REGULATION OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
1. Nervous Regulation
Local, within the Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
a. Enteric sensory neuron, detect chemical composition and mechanical
changes
b. Enteric motor neuron, stimulate or inhibit smooth muscle contraction and
glandular secretion
c. Enteric inter-neuron, connect the sensory and motor neuron
d. Coordinate local reflexes
General, through the Vagus nerve
Control the reflexes activated by stimuli from the digestive tract, sight,
smell, taste which stimulate the hunger sensation
Parasymphathetic neuron excitation muscle contractin and blood supply
Sympathetic neuron inhibit muscle contraction and blood supply.
Regulation ..
2. Chemical Regulation
GIT produce hormones: gastrin, secretin, etc. regulate
other secretion
Histamine (Paracrine chemicals) influence the nearby cells
Oral Cavity ..
Assignment
1. List the major regions og the digestive tract
2. Describe each of the processes involved in the normal functions of
the digestive system
3. Outline the basic histological characteristic of the digestive tract
4. Describe the enteric plexus. In what layer of the digestive tract are
the submucosal and myenteric plexuses found?
5. What are the nervous and chemical mechanism that regulate the
digestive system?
Oral cavity
1. Lips and Cheeks
Help manipulate food within the mouth and hold it in place while teeth crush or
tear it
2. Palate and Palatine Tonsils
Prevents food from passing into the nasal cavity
3. Tongue
Contain sensory organs for taste
Moves food in the mouth, holds the food in place during mastication
4. Teeth
Play an important role in mastication and speech
The anterior are incisors, canines to cut and tear, premolars and molars crush
and grind food
5. Mastication ..
5. Mastication
Food taken into the mouth is chewed or masticated by the teeth
Food are broken into smaller particles have larger total surface area
efficiency of digestion
Is reflex, which integrated in the medulla oblongata. Food stimulate sensory
receptor activate reflex (muscle of mastication relax). The muscle are
stretched as the mandible lowered, stretch activate reflex contraction of the
mastication muscles. Once the mouth is closed, the food again stimulate reflex to
relax the muscle, and the cycle is repeated.
Cerebrum strongly influence the activity of mastication initiated and stopped
consciously. Cerebrum control the intensity and movement
6. Salivary Gland
Secretes saliva 1 1.5 L/day, contain salivary amylase. Breaks starch and
polysaccharides maltose and isomaltose (sweet taste)
Digest 3 5% carbohydrate (food spends very little time in the mouth)
Saliva contain lysozyme prevent bacterial infection
Assignment
1. What are the function of the lips and cheeks? What muscle forms
the substance of the cheek?
2. List the functions of the tongue. Distinguish between intrinsic and
extrinsic tongue muscles
3. List the muscle of mastication and actions they produces. Describe
the mastication reflex
4. Explain the function of saliva
PHARYNX
The main function: transmit food
1. Nasopharynx
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx
Esophagus
Extends between pharynx and the stomach, 25 cm long, lies in the
mediastinum anterior to the vertebrae and posterior to trachea
Transports food from pharynx to the stomach
The upper esophageal sphincter and lower esophageal sphincter
regulate the movement of material into and out the esophagus
Numerous mucus gland produce a thick, lubricating mucus,
facilitate the movement of material
Swallowing (deglutition)
Three phases:
1. Voluntary phase
2. Pharyngeal phase (a reflex)
3. Esophageal phase
Voluntary phase
Reflex Begin Bolus stimulates tactile receptors
Pharyngeal phase (reflex)
Tactile receptors N. V and IX Med. Oblongata
N. V, IX, X, XI
Soft palate elevates closes the passage between
nasopharynx and oropharynx. The pharynx
elevate and move the bolus
Esophageal phase
Inferior constrictor contract
upper esophageal
sphincter relax bolus enter
the esophagus
The bolus moves along
esophagus by peristaltic
Assignment
1. What are the three phases of deglutition?
2. List the processes involved in the last two phases, and describe
how they are regulated?
Stomach
Anatomy of the stomach
Extends from the opening of gastroesophageal to pyloric
Histology of the stomach
The wall consists of serosa, muscle layer, submucosa, simple columnar
epithelium
Rugae are the fold in the stomach when it is empty
Gastric pits are the opening to the gastric gland contain mucous neck cells, chief
cells, and endocrine cell
Stomach ..
Stomach Function
Secretion of the Stomach
1. Mucus protects the stomach lining
2. Pepsinogen is converted to pepsin digest protein
3. HCl promote pepsin activity and kill microorganism
4. Intrinsic factor is necessary for absorption of vitamin B
12
5. The sight, smell, taste, or thought of food initiate cephalic phase. Nerve impulses from
medulla stimulate HCl, pepsinogen, gastrin, and histamine secretion
6. Distention of stomach, which stimulate gastrin secretion and activates CNS and local
reflexes that promote secretion, initiate gastric phase
7. Acidic chyme, which enters the duodenum and stimulate neuronal reflexes and
secretion of hormones that inhibit gastric secretion, initiate the intestinal phase
Stomach function
HCl Production by Parietal Cells in the Gastric Glands of the Stomach
The Cephalic Phase
of Gastric Secretion
REGULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
The Gastric
Phase of
Gastric
Secretion
The Intestinal
Phase of gastric
Secretion
Movement of the Stomach
1. The stomach stretches and relaxes to increase volume
2. Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with stomach secretion to form
chyme
3. Peristaltic waves move the chyme into duodenum
MOVEMENT OF THE STOMACH
MOVEMENT OF THE STOMACH
Stomach Emptying
1. The pyloric pump responsible for movement of chyme through the pyloric
opening
2. Gastrin and stretching of the stomach stimulate stomach emptying
3. Chyme entering duodenum inhibit movement through the neural reflexes and
the release of hormones

Assignment
1. Describe the parts of the stomach. List the layers of the stomach wall. How is the
stomach different from the esophagus?
2. What are gastric pits and gastric glands? Name the different cell types in the
stomach and the secretions they produce
3. Describe the three phases of regulation of the stomach scretion, and discuss the cause
and result of each phase
4. How are gastric secretions inhibited? Why is this inhibition necessary?
5. Why does pressure in the stomach not greatly increase as the stomach fills?
6. What are two kinds of stomach movements? How are stomach movements regulated
by hormones and nervous control?
SMALL INTESTINE
Divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
Its wall consists of external serosa, muscles (longitudinal and
circular), submucosa, and simple columnar epithelium
Circular fold, villi, and microvilli greatly increase the surface area
of the intestinal lining
Absorptive, goblet, and endocrine cells are in intestinal glands.
Duodenal glands produce mucus
Small intestine ..
Secretion of the small intestine
1. Mucus protect against digestive enzymes and stomach acids
2. Digestive enzyme (disaccharidases and peptidases) are bound to intestinal wall
3. Chemical or tactile irritation, vagal stimulation, and secretin stimulate intestinal
secretion
Movement of the small intestine
Segmental contraction mix intestinal contents. Peristaltic contraction move
materials distally
Stretch of smooth muscle, local reflexes, and the parasympathetic nervous system
stimulate contractions. Distention of the cecum initiates a reflex that inhibit
peristalsis
Assignment
1. What are the function of the intestinal glands and duodenal
glands? State the factors that stimulate secretion from the
duodenal glands and from goblets cells.
2. List the enzymes of the small intestine wall and give their
functions
3. What are the two kinds of movement of the small intestine?
How are they regulated?
4. What is the function of the ileocecal sphincter?
LIVER
The functions of the liver
1. The liver produces bile, which contains bile salts that emulsify
fats. Secretin increase bile production
Function of the liver ..
The function of the liver (continue)
2. The liver stores and processes nutrients, produces new
molecules, and detoxifies molecules
The function of the liver ..
3. Hepatic phagocytic cells phagocytize red blood cells, bacteria,
and other debris
4. The liver produces blood components
Control of Bile Secretion
and Release
GALLBLADDER
1. The gallbladder is a small sac on the inferior surface of the liver
2. The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile
3. Cholecystokinin stimulates gallbladder contraction
PANCREAS
1. The pancreas is an endocrine and exocrine gland. Its exocrine
function is the production of the digestive enzymes
2. The pancreas is divided into lobules that contain acini. The acini
connect to a duct system the eventually forms the pancreatic duct,
which empties into duodenum
3. Secretin stimulates the release of a watery bicarbonate solution
that neutralize acidic chyme
4. Cholecystokinin and vagus nerve stimulate the release of
digestive enzymes
Bicarbonate ion
production in the
pancreas
Control of
Pancreatic
secretion
Assignment
1. Explain and give examples of the major functions of the liver
2. What stimulates bile secretion from the liver
3. What is the function of the gallbladder? What stimulates the
release of bile from the gallbladder?
4. Describe the part of the pancreas responsible for endocrine and
exocrine secretions. Diagram the duct system of the pancreas
5. Name the two kinds of exocrine secretions produced by the
pancreas. What stimulates their production and what is their
function?
6. What are the enzyme present in the pancratic juice? Explain the
function of each.
LARGE INTESTINE
Secretion of large intestine
1. Mucus provides protection to the intestine lining
2. Epithelial cells secrete bicarbonate ions. Sodium is absorbed by
active transport, and water is absorbed by osmosis
3. Microorganism are responsible for vitamin K production, gas
production, and much of the bulk of feces
Large intestine .
Movement in the large intestine
1. Segmental movement mix the colons contents
2. Mass movement are strong peristaltic contraction that occur
three to four time a day
Large intestine .
3. Defecation is the elimination of feces. Reflex activity moves
feces through the internal anal sphincter. Voluntary activity
regulates movement through the external anal sphincter
Reflexes in Colon and
Rectum
Assignment
1. Describe the part of the large intestine. What are teniae coli,
haustra, and crypts
2. Explain the difference in structure between the internal anal
sphincter and the external anal sphincter
3. Name the substances secreted and absorbed by the large
intestine. What is the role of microorganism in the colon?
4. What kind of movement occur in the colon? Describe the
defecation reflex.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, and TRANSPORT
1. Digestion is the breakdown of organic molecules into their
component parts
2. Absorption and transport are the mean by which molecules are
moved from the lumen into the circulation
3. Transportation occurs by two different routes.
Water, ions, and water-soluble products of digestion are
transported to the liver through the hepatic portal system
The product of lipid digestion are transported through the
lymphatic system to the circulatory system
CARBOHYDRATES
1. Carbohydrates consist starches, glycogen, sucrose, lactose, glucose, and fructose
2. Polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides by a number of different
enzymes
3. Monosaccharides are take up by intestinal epithelial cells by active transport or by
facilitated diffusion
4. Monosaccharides are carried to the liver where the nonglucose sugars are
converted to glucose
5. Glucose is transported to the cells that require energy
6. Glucose enters the cells through facilitated diffusion
7. Insulin influences the rate of glucose transport
Monosaccharide Transport
LIPIDS
1. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins
2. Emulsification is the transformation of large lipid droplets into smaller droplets
and is accomplished by bile salts
3. Lipase digest lipid molecules to form free fatty acids and glycerol
4. Micelles form around lipid digestion products and move to epithelial cells of small
intestine, where the products pass into the cells by simple diffusion
5. Within the epithelial cells, free fatty acids are combined with glycerol to form
triglyceride
Lipids ..
6. Proteins coat triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol to form chylomicrons
7. Chylomicrons enter the lacteals within the intestinal villi and are carried through
the lymphatic system to the bloodstream
8. Triglyceride is stored in adipose tissue, converted into other molecules, or used as
energy
9. Lipoproteins include chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL
10. LDL transport cholesterol to cells, and HDL transport it from cells to the liver
11. LDL are taken into cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis which is controlled by a
negative-feedback mechanism
Lipid Transport
Transport of LDL into Cells
1. Cells have pits on the surface,
which contain LDL receptors
2. LDL binds to the LDL receptors in
pits
3. The LDL, bound to LDL receptors,
is taken into the cell by endocytosis
PROTEINS
1. Pepsin in the stomach breaks protein into smaller polypdtide chains
2. Proteolytic enzymes from the pancreas produce small peptide chains
3. Peptidases, bound to the microvilli of the small intestine, break down peptides
4. Amino acids are absorbed by cotransport, which requires transport of sodium
5. Amino acids are transported to the liver, where the amino acids can be modified
or released into the bloodstream
6. Amino acids are transported into cells under the stimulation of growth hormone
and insulin
7. Amino acids are used as building blocks or for energy
Amino Acid Transport
WATER
Water can move in either direction across the wall of the small
intestine, depending on the osmotic gradients across the epithelium
IONS
1. Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are
actively transported
2. Chloride ions move passively through the wall of duodenum and
jejunum but actively transported from the ileum
3. Calcium ions are actively transported, but vitamin D is required
for transport, and the transport is under hormonal control
Fluid Volumes in the
Digestive Tract
Assignment
1. Describe the mechanism of absorption and the route of
transport for water-soluble and lipid-soluble molecules
2. Describe the enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins, and list the breakdown products of each.
3. Explain how fats are emulsified. Describe the role of
micelles, chylomicrons, VLDLs, LDLs, HDLs in the
absorption and transport of lipids in the body.
4. Explain how dipeptides and tripeptides enter intestinal
epithelial cells
5. Describe the movement of water through the intestinal wall
6. When and where are various ions absorbed?
EFFECT OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The mucus layer, the connective tissue, the muscles, and the
secretions all tend to decrease as a person ages. These changes
make an older person more open to infection and toxic agents
Assignment
1. What is the general effect of aging on digestive tract
secretion?
2. What are the effect of the overall decline in the defenses of
the digestive tract with advancing age?