UNIT-I

Metallic Cable Transmission

Media
B.E,M.Tech,AMIETE
R.RADHA KRISHNA
Optical vs. Electronic Circuits
Optical
Photons
Photonic crystals
Electronic
Electrons
Semiconductors
Photons can travel much faster than electrons!
c = 3.0 10
8
m/s (vacuum) vs
n
f
(Fermi Speed) = 1.57 10
6
m/s (copper wire)

Some properties of light
Light is a transverse wave

Several wavelengths to make up electromagnetic
spectrum

Different wavelengths of light contain different
amounts of energy

Light can produce a photoelectric effect

Light will travel different speeds in different
mediums (space, air, water, etc.).

Reflection
Law of Reflection: When waves are bounced off a
smooth surface, the angle of incidence and angle of
reflection are the same.
Diffuse reflection
Mirror
object distance = image distance
angle of = angle of
incidence reflection
Refraction
Critical angle
If the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of
refraction.
The critical angle is defined to be an angle of incidence for
which the angle of refraction is 90 degrees.
Reflection
When the angle of incidence
becomes greater than the
critical angle, a new
phenomenon occurs called
reflection.

Light no longer passes into the
less dense medium at all.


http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnuj
ava/viewtopic.php?t=32

Refraction
When light is travelling through different
mediums, it travels at different speeds.
When light slows down it appears bent
angle of
incedence
angle of
refraction
Refractive index (n) =
Speed of light in vacuum

Speed of light in medium
Law of Snell:
2 2 1 1
sin sin n n
Negative Refraction
Nature 2003, 423,22
Science 2004, 305,788

Elements of a Fiber Data Link
Transmitter emits light pulses (LED or Laser)
Connectors and Cables passively carry the
pulses
Receiver detects the light pulses
Transmitter Receiver
Cable
Basic Fiber Optic Transmission System
OPTICAL
TRANSMITTER
OPTICAL
RECEIVER
FIBER OPTIC
CABLE
SIGNAL
INPUT
SIGNAL
OUTPUT
Repeaters
For long links, repeaters are needed to
compensate for signal loss
Fiber
Repeater Repeater Repeater
Fiber
Fiber Fiber
Optical Fiber
Core
Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
Carries the signal
Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core
Buffer
Protects the fiber from damage and
moisture
Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a cable

Fiber Optic Specifications
Attenuation
Loss of signal, measured in dB
Dispersion
Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
Bandwidth
The number of bits per second that can be sent
through a data link
Numerical Aperture
Measures the largest angle of light that can be
accepted into the core
Attenuation and Dispersion
See
animation at
link Ch 2e
Numerical Aperture
If the core and cladding have almost the same index
of refraction, the numerical aperture will be small
This means that light must be shooting right down
the center of the fiber to stay in the core
See Link Ch 4d
Numerical Aperture
All fibers have a defined acceptance
angle. The sine of the acceptance
angle in air is known as the Numerical
Aperture (NA)


2
0
2
1
sin n n NA
Singlemode Fiber
Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9
microns, which only allows one light path or
mode
Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a)
Index of
refraction
Multimode Step-Index Fiber
Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or
62.5 microns (sometimes even larger)
Allows several light paths or modes
This causes modal dispersion some modes take longer to
pass through the fiber than others because they travel a
longer distance





See animation at link Ch 2f
Index of
refraction
Multimode Graded-Index Fiber
The index of refraction gradually changes
across the core
Modes that travel further also move faster
This reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is greatly
increased
Index of
refraction



Fig: Representations of spherical and plane wave fronts
and their associated rays
The Nature of Light
A fundatro:ntal oplic"lll pam"""'" or a ",ah."';al is lhe
",/ro,";'''' inda (or i,,,/o: 'if "i,m'"'ion). In free
"fl'l'.'e a lighl WaVe lrowls ,~ a ~flC\'ll c " 3" I 0" mi .
n.e <","-00 ur lighl i. n:lal<.'d In the r""l"'"'ocy vall,J
the wnwlcnj!lh.t by c .. IA. Upon cnl"';III!. diel""tril" ur
nonconducting mooiun. lhe wavc IkIW trn ... l.
al. spc.-d u. whk:h i. charao::l..,;,tk .. rthe malerial aOO
i, I"," than 'c. The rdlin nrlhe "!"'"'I " r li~hl in a
vacuu'" lolhal in mallcr I. the irt<lc, or refroo i,,,, II or
tlte mal"';~l and is ,h'Ct\ hy



PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH AN
OPTICAL FIBER CABLE

OPTICAL FIBER MODES AND
CLASSIFICATIONS
There are only three practical types of optical
fiber configurations:
1.single-mode step index.
2. multimode step index.
3.Multimode graded index.



OPTICAL FIBER COMPARISON



LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES
Power loss

Light Sources

Optical Sources
There are essentially only two types of practical
light sources used to generate light for optical
fiber communications systems: light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) and injection laser diodes
(ILDs).
Light-emitting diodes.
Injection laser diodes
Advantages:
1. ILDs emit coherent (orderly) light, whereas LEDs emit
incoherent (disorderly) light.
2. The radiant output power from an ILD is greater than
that for an LED.
A typical output power for an ILD is 5 mW (7 dBm) and
only 0.5 mW (-3 dBm) for LEDs.
3. ILDs can be used at higher bit rates than LEDs.
4. ILDs generate monochromatic light, which reduces
chromatic or wavelength dispersion.
Disadvantages:
1. ILDs are typically 10 times more expensive than LEDs.
2. Because ILDs operate at higher powers, they typically
have a much shorter lifetime than LEDs.
3. ILDs are more temperature dependent than LEDs.
Optical Detectors
Characteristics of light detectors
1. Responsively
2. Dark current
3. Transit time
4. Spectral response.
5. Light sensitivity.
Laser
Laser is an acronym for light amplification
stimulated by the emission of radiation
1. Gas lasers.
2. Liquid lasers.
3. Soil lasers.
4. Semiconductor lasers
UNIT-III
Digital Transmission
digital transmission is the transmittal of digital
signals between two or more points in a
communications system. The signals can be binary
or any other form of discrete-level digital pulses
Advantages of Digital Transmission
The primary advantage of digital transmission over
analog transmission is noise immunity.
Digital signals are inherently less susceptible than
analog signals to interference.
Digital signals are also better suited than analog
signals for processing and combining using a
technique called multiplexing
Disadvantages of Digital Transmission
The transmission of digitally encoded analog signals
requires significantly more bandwidth than simply
transmitting the original analog signal.
Bandwidth is one of the most important aspects of
any communications system because it is costly and
limited.

PULSE MODULATION

Pulse modulation consists essentially of
sampling analog information signals and then
converting those samples into discrete pulses
and then transporting the pulses from a source
to be a destination over a physical
transmission medium.
The four predominant methods of modulation
include pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse
position modulation, pulse amplitude
modulation (PAM), and pulse code modulation
(PCM).
1. PWM. This method of pulse modulation is
sometimes called pulse duration modulation (PDM)
or pulse length modulation (PLM),
2. PPM.
3. PAM.
4. PCM.


PCM Sampling

DYNAMIC RANGE
The ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the
smallest possible magnitude (other than 0 V) that
can be decoded by the digital-to-analog converter in
the receiver.
Mathematically, dynamic range is



Signal Voltage to-Quantization Noise
Voltage Ration
The three-bits PCM codes are basically linear
codes in a PCM code the changes in
magnitude between any two consecutive is
same. As a result the magnitude of their
quantization error is also the same.
The Signal voltage to Quantization Noise
Ratio (SQNR) is defined as the ratio of
quantum value ,(resolution)-to the
Quantization error




Linear Versus Nonlinear PCM Codes




Digital Companding



Time Division Multiplexing



T1 Digital Carrier System



North American digital multiplexing hierarchy.

Digital line encoding
(a) Transmission voltages 'and D.C
component
(b) Duty cycle
(c) Bandwidth
(d) Clock recovery
(e) Error detection
(f) Digital biphase.
T Carrier systems
T carriers are used for the transmission of PCM-
encoded time-division multiplexed digital signals.
T1 Carrier System
T1 carrier systems were designed to combine PCM
and TDM techniques for the transmission of
24 64-kbps channels
line speed for a T1 carrier is 1.544 Mbps, including
an 8-kbps framing bit.
T1 carriers use BPRZ-AMI encoding with
regenerative repeaters placed every 3000,6000, or
9000 feet.


T2 Carrier System


European Time- Division Multiplexing

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing


Frame Synchronization

Frequency- Division Multiplexing
With frequency-division multiplexing (FDM),
multiple sources that originally occupied the
same frequency spectrum are each converted to a
different frequency band and transmitted
simultaneously over a single transmission
medium, which can be a physical cable or the
earths atmosphere (i.e., wireless).
A familiar example of FDM is the commercial AM
broadcast band, which occupies a frequency
spectrum from 535 kHz to 1605 kHz.



Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

FDM stands for Frequency Division Multiplexing.
In this scheme, the number of different frequencies
are combined together and pass through low pass
filter in order to remove unwanted interferences and
an adder, which combines frequencies at the output.
At the demultiplexer the individual frequency
signals can be obtained by means of a decoder.
FDM provides high frequency range in order to
associate n number of users.
This system provides high capacity. This system is
almost available in all communications.

Differences between WDM and D-WDM
1. The WDM systems that carry multiple optical signals that
are separated by less than 200 GHz are considered to be D-
WDM(or) dense-WDM whereas in WDM systems the
optical signals are separated by greater than 200GHz.
2. The number of optical Signals carried by a D-WDM
system are more compared to that carried by WDM systems.
Since, more the number of, signal, closer they are to each
other and hence derive the wavelength spectrum.
The channel spacing in DWDM is reduced to. 1.6 nm or
even less, thus it is able to carry many signals.
Therefore the capacity of DWDM is greater than
conventional WDM.
Synchronous Optical Network
The synchronous optical network (SONET) is a
multiplexing system similar to conventional time-division
multiplexing except SONET was developed to be used with
optical fibers.
The initial SONET standard is OC-1. This level is referred
to as synchronous transport level 1 (STS-l). STS-l has a
51.84-Mbps synchronous frame structure comprised of 28
DS-l signals.
Each DS-l signal is equivalent to a single 24-channel T1
digital carrier system.
Thus, one STS-l system can carry 672 individual 64-kbps
voice or data channels (24 x 28).
With STS-l, it is possible to extract or add individual DS-I
signals without completely disassembling the entire frame.
UNIT IV
WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
SYSTEMS
Electromagnetic Polarization
Electromagnetic polarization refers to the
orientation of the electric field vector with
respect to earth's surface.
In this concept, the electric field whose
orientation is varied in regular intervals to
retain its strength along all directions.
A polarization vector is a vector whose
direction is along the path of the polarization
(ie, electric field orientation direction).
There are three kinds of polarization
namely.
1. Linear polarization
2. Circular polarization
3. Elliptical polarization.
Ray
A ray is defined as a line that is drawn along
the direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave.
A ray can be drawn to indicate a group of
electromagnetic waves but not necessarily a
single electromagnetic wave.
Thus, it gives the relative direction of
propagation.
Wavefront
A wave front is a surface formed by
electromagnetic waves that has a constant
phase. It is generally formed by joining all the
equi phase points on rays which are emitted
by a same source.
Electromagnetic Radiation
The phenomenon of representing the flow of
electromagnetic waves in the directional
propagation Electromagnetic Radiation.
In this, the electric and magnetic field components
oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other.
In the direction of propagation of energy is also
perpendicular to these two components.
The speed of propagation is equal to that of
light (i.e., C=3 x lO
8
ms
-1
).

Spherical Wavefront
Inverse Square Law

The difference between wave
attenuation and wave absorption
Wave attenuation is referred as the reduction
in power density (number of waves per unit
area) with distance.
Wave absorption is defined as the transfer of
energy from wave to all the substance that
exit in its path of propagation.


Optical Properties of Radio Waves
The different optical effects are
1.Refraction
2.Reflection
3.Diffraction
4.Interference
Terrestrial Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves


Free Space Path Loss
It is the loss incurred by a electromagnetic
wave as it propagates in a straight line through
a vacuum, without any absorption or reflection
of energy.

Microwave Communications Systems

Satellite Communication Systems

UNIT-V
TELEPHONE INSTRUMENTS AND
SIGNALS

The Subscriber Loop
The term communication refers to the various
methods of sending information between people and
places that includes a source of information, a
transmitter, a receiver and transmission medium of
any form that connects transmitter and ,receiver.
The term communication refers to the transmission
and receipt of information.

Standard Telephone Set


The purpose of theRJ-11 connector




Basic Telephone Call Procedures
The steps in completing a local telephone call are as
follows,
Initially calling party goes in off hook condition.
Once the D.C current flows into the loop, the
switching machine sends a dial tone to the calling
party in order to make sure that it has access to the
switching machine.
Now the caller starts dialing the destination
telephone number either by rotary dialer or touch-
tone keypad.
The switching machine removes the dial tone as
soon as the first number is dialed .
The switching machine will locate the
corresponding local loop for the destination number.
After locating, the switching machine will check for
on hook or off hook condition of the destination
party in order to make D.C current to flow. At the
same time the switching machine provides a signal
path through it for the two local loops .
The switching machine sends a busy dial tone to the
called subscriber when the destination party is off
hook.
Call Progress Tones and Signals
Call progress tones and call progress signals are
like acknowledgment and status signals.
This signals flake certain that the call setup and
termination process are completed in an orderly and
timely manner.
This signals can be transmitted between switching
machine to switching machining, switching machine
systematic and timely manner, describes the basic
purpose of call progress tones and signals.
For example, if a switching system forwards a call to a
subscriber, the acknowledgment Would be a call
progress tone such that it must be audible and clear for a
Subscriber to identify.





Cordless Telephones

Caller ID
Caller ID (Identification) displays the name and
telephone number of calling party, while the telephone is
ringing.
This makes the subscribers to attend the call according
to their wish.