Homeostasis

M. Djauhari Widjajakusumah

Departmen Fisiologi
Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Indonesia
Human Physiology


o Concerns with the specific characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body that make it a living
being

o Encompasses all aspects of human biology, it is the
study of the function of human body which is
inseparable from its structure

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006
Cell, The Basic Unit of Life
o The basic unit of both structure and function in living being. The
smallest unit capable of carrying out processes associated with
life.

o Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one particular
function.

o All cells have certain basic characteristics that are alike.
Oxygen combines with macronutrients to release energy
Cells deliver end-products of the chemical reactions into the
interstitial fluids.
Almost all cells have the ability to reproduce.
Cells consist of chemical components (atoms: oxygen,
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen molecules: protein,
carbohydrate, fat, nucleic acids [DNA genetic materials])

o Organ is an aggregate of many different cells held together by
intercellular supporting structures.





Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006
Basic Cell Functions Essential for Survival of the
Cell
1. Obtaining nutrients and oxygen from the surrounding environment

2. Utilizing nutrients (carbohydrate, fat, protein) and oxygen by way of
performing various chemical reactions to provide energy for the
cells.

3. Eliminating CO2 and other by products, wastes produced during
chemical reactions, to the surrounding of the cells

4. Synthesizing protein & other components cellular structure,
growth,
carrying out cell functions

5. Controlling materials exchange between the cell and its surrounding
environment

6. Moving materials from one part of the cell to another in carrying out
cellular activities

7. Being sensitive and responsive to changes in the surrounding
environment

8. Reproducing, in most cells
Intercellular Communication
Cells communicate with each other via chemical messenger
Gap junction
Chemical messenger move from cell to cell without entering ECF

Neural communication
Neurotransmitter released from nerve cells at synaptic junction, act
across synaptic cleft on postsynaptic cell

Endocrine communication
Hormones reach and bind to receptors of the target cells via the
circulating blood

Paracrine communication
Products of cells diffuse in the ECF to affect neighboring cells

Autocrine communication
Chemical messenger secreted by cell, bind to receptors on the
same cell, i.e. the cell that secreted the messenger
Intercellular communication by chemical mediators

Body Fluids
o 56-60% of the adult human being is fluid.

o 2/3 of this fluid is the intracellular fluid (40% bw)
1/3 of this fluid is the extracellular fluid (20% bw)

o Claude Bernard (the 19
th
century French physiologist):
Extracellular fluid is the internal environment of the body (millieu
interieur) that contains - among others - the ions and nutrients
needed by the cells for the maintenance of the cellular life
homeostasis





Body fluid compartments. Arrows represent fluid
movement. Transcellular fluids, which constitute a
very small percentage of total body fluids, are not
shown.
William F. Ganong: Review of Medical Physiology 22
nd
ed,
2005
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
o Constantly moves throughout the body

o Rapidly transported in the circulating blood
(intravascular fluid)

o Fluid exchange between the intravascular and the tissue
(interstitial) fluids by way of diffusion through the
capillary walls

o ECF contents:
Na, K, Ca, Cl, and bicarbonate ions
Nutrients (O2, glucose, fatty acids, amino acids)
CO2, transported from the cells to the lungs
Other cellular products






Constituents and Physical Characteristics of the ECF
Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006
Homeostasis
Homeo = same; statis = constant

The maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the
internal environment (milieu interieur)

An active process through which the constancy of
components of the immediate environment of the cell is
maintained within the physiological range within which
life can survive

Not an unchanging or static state; it is a dynamic state, it
changes according to the changing needs of the body
short term or long term adaptations

Homeodynamic would be the better word A dynamic
steady state in the internal environment
Homeostasis
The activities of cells, tissues, and organs must be
regulated and integrated with each other in such a
way that any change in the extracellular fluid
initiates a reaction to minimize the change.

Homeostasis denotes the relatively stable conditions
of the internal environment that result from these
compensating regulatory responses performed by
homeostatic control systems.
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function,
Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Homeostasis

Cell survival depends on maintenance of a relative stable
internal fluid environment (ECF) with which cells directly
make self-sustaining exchanges
The cells continue to live and function properly providing
the normal condition of the internal environment is
maintained
Homeostasis is essential for each cells survival, each
cell benefits from homeostasis.
Each cell contributes its share towards the maintenance
of homeostasis.



Homeostasis
The body systems functions are to maintain homeostasis; and
depend on the specialized activities of the cells

The internal environment factors that must be homeostatically
maintained are:
concentration of nutrient molecules, O2 and CO2, waste
products, water, salt, and other electrolytes
pH
temperature
volume and pressure

Each functional structure / organ provides its share in the
maintenance of homeostatic conditions in the internal environment
(ECS):
Lungs provide O2 to replenish O2 being used by the cells
Kidneys maintain constant ion concentrations
GI system provides nutrients


Disruption of Homeostatic condition


One or more functional systems lose their ability to
contribute their share of function cells of the body
suffer.

Extreme dysfunction leads to death, whereas moderate
dysfunction leads to sickness.

Regulation of Body Functions
The Nervous System


Provides rapid coordinations of internal organ system, and
response to the external environment to maintain the
homeostatic condition.
Interactions between the nervous and endocrine controlling
systems are precisely adjusted by complex mechanism
the neuroendocrine regulation.




Regulation of Body Functions
The Nervous System


Composed of three major parts

o The sensory input portion
Sensory receptors detect the state of the body or the state of
the surroundings

o The central nervous system (CNS)/integrative portion
Composed of the brain, the brain stem, and the spinal cord.
The brain stores information, generate thoughts, determines
reactions in response to the sensory inputs.

o The motor output portion
Transmits appropriate signals from CNS to carry out
appropriate responses


Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition
The McGrawHill Companies, 2001



Regulation of Body Functions
The Endocrine System



o Hormones are transported in the ECF to all parts of
the body to help regulate cellular functions

o Complements the nervous system

o The nervous system regulates mainly the muscular
and secretory activities, the hormonal system
regulates mainly the metabolic functions.

The Control System of The Body

Proportional control system:
Adjusting and reacting (giving response) to changes in
the environment (stimuli) in proportion to the degree of
fluctuation of the controlled variables.

A complex and integrated system.
Simple proportional system still has minor errors that
can be corrected by an integral control system.
The Control System of The Body

Intracellular control system
Genetic control system, controls intracellular
functions

Organ level control system (intrinsic /local control
system)
Controls the functions of parts of the organ

Inter organ control system (extrinsic control system)
Operates throughout the entire body to control the
interrelationships among organs
The respiratory system regulates the
concentration of CO2, in association with the
nervous system
The liver and pancreas regulate the concentration
of blood glucose
Characteristics of Control System Feedback
mechanisms
Feedback system
Feedback: responses made after a change has been detected
Feedback system generally operate on the principle of
negative feed back:
Negative feedback system
Integrative system that measures and compares the input
and output, and gives response to any discrepancy to
maintain a biological system in a steady state
Negative feedback mechanism
A series of changes that return the controlled variable
toward a certain mean value, thus maintaining homeostasis
Most control systems of the body act by a process of
negative feedback



Negative-feedback system

An increase or decrease in the variable being regulated brings
about responses that tend to move the variable in the
direction opposite (negative to) the direction of the original
change. The response returns the controlled variable back to
its normal value, the response is against the change

the decrease in body temperature leads to responses that
tend to increase the body temperature that is, move it
toward its original value.

the increase in ECF concentration of C02 (initiating
stimulus) leads to responses that tend to increase
pulmonary ventilation lungs expire greater amounts of
CO2 from the body decreases back ECF [C02]
(negative response to the initiating stimulus)

Elaine N. Marieb, Katja Hoehn: Human Anatomy & Physiology 7
th
ed,
2006
Elaine N. Marieb, Katja Hoehn: Human Anatomy
& Physiology 7
th
ed, 2006
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The
Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition,
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body Function, Eighth Edition,
The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
The homeostatic control system maintains a
relatively constant body temperature when
room temperature decreases.

The begin sign indicates where to start.
The arrows next to each term within the
boxes denote increases or decreases.

The arrows connecting any two boxes in the
figure denote cause and effect; that is, an
arrow can be read as causes or leads to.

In general, one should add the words
tends to in thinking about these
causeand-effect relationships. For example,
decreased room temperature tends to
cause an increase in heat loss from the
body, and curling up tends to cause a
decrease in heat loss from the body.

Qualifying the relationship in this way is
necessary because variables like heat
production and heat loss are under the
influence of many factors, some of which
oppose each other.
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of Body
Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism
of Body Function, Eighth Edition, The
McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Ganongs Review of Medical Physiology 23
rd

ed, 2009
Characteristics of Control System Feedback
mechanisms
Positive Feedback:
An initial disturbance in a system sets off a train of events
that increase the disturbance even further.
Positive feedback does not favor stability and often abruptly
displaces a system away from its normal set point.
The greater the initiating stimulus, the more the controlling
system is activated.
Does not happen very often in biological system, does not
lead to stability, but to instability and often to death.
Known as vicious circle
A mild degree of positive feedback can be overcome by
negative feedback control vicious circle fails to develop
In certain circumstances, positive feedback occurs to be
useful
Childbirth
Descending of the baby cervix stretched signals
from the cervix uterine contractions more stretched
cervix more intense signals more powerful uterine
contractions birth of the baby



Characteristics of Control System Feedback
mechanisms
Positive Feedback:


Estrogens Increased oxytocin receptors Uterine distention
Prostaglandin


Uterine contractions

Dilatation of cervix and distention of vagina

Stimuli from cervix and vagina

Increased secretion of oxytocin
Vicious cycle
If one or more functional systems lose their ability to function properly

the optimal condition of the internal environment can not be maintained

drives the body away from normal homeostasis

vicious cycle

homeostatic failure

cells of the body suffer

pathophysiologic condition

may lead to death.



Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006
Vander et al.: Human Physiology: The Mechanism of
Body Function, Eighth Edition, The McGrawHill
Companies, 2001
Adaptation
Living systems are constantly adjusting and reacting (responses)
to changes (stimuli ) in the environment

Immediate response:
Painful stimulus increased blood pressure
Exercise increased blood pressure immediate adaptation
to supply the exercising muscles ( the new circumstances)
with blood, limited by muscle soreness and fatigue

Response to long-lasting environment changes

Basic biochemistry changes in trained muscles:
o Increased number of open capillaries supplying the muscle
o Increased blood supply, contractile proteins, and oxygen-
storing protein (myoglobin)
Adaptation to the new environment, muscle hypertrophy,
increase in size of the individual muscle cells

Patients clinical condition
Clinical signs & symptoms
History & prognosis of the disease
Histopathological changes
(Pathology Anatomy)
(Clinical Pathology)
Abnormal function
(Pathophysiology) Pathogenesis Pathogenesis
Feedback mechanism
failure
Trauma,
stimuli
Normal Structure
(Anatomy,
Histology)
Normal Function
Trauma,
stimuli
Feedback mechanism
Short Term Adaptation
Long Term Adaptation
Homeostasis
Physiology
Biochemistry


Thank you

Guyton and Hall: Textbook of Medical Physiology 11th ed. 2006