Gps Lecture

FOR 220 Aerial Photo
Interpretation and
Forest Measurements
Lecture 18

Global Positioning
Systems
FOR 220 Aerial Photo Interpretation and Forest Measurements
Avery and Burkhart (2002) pp. 89-98
Paine and Kiser (2003) pp. 188-211
A system of satellites, receivers, ground stations, and software for ......

navigating
around the
landscape

and

mapping
landscape
features

Global Positioning Systems
Defined
Defined
GPS consists of 3 main segments:

1. Space (Satellite) Segment

2. Ground Control Segment

3. User (Receiver) Segment
24+ satellites (normal
constellation)

Extra satellites are
typically deployed to
back up satellites that
go down for one reason
or another. Currently,
there are about 31 satellites
in orbit.

6 orbits around the Earth
11,000 mile altitude
12 hour orbit
Satellite System
Peter H. Dana 1998
Ground Control System
Peter H. Dana 1998
Satellites are monitored and maintained by a network of ground stations.

Ground stations located around the world.

Master Control Station located in Colorado
Users - Receivers
Numerous!
Navigation
Tract boundary mapping and location
Fire boundary mapping
Location of inventory or permanent plots
Mapping roads, trails, streams
Mapping wildlife nest or observation locations
Uses
Knowing your horizontal position requires triangulation:

To find your horizontal position, you need the distance from where
you are to a least 3 fixed objects.

Even though satellites orbit around the Earth, we know exactly where
they are at all times, so they might be considered fixed.

Knowing your vertical position (elevation) requires knowing the position of a 4
th

fixed object (satellite).
How it works
Something to ponder: Triangulation with only 3 satellites will result in 2 possible
solutions for your position. So if youre in Corvallis, where would the other position
be?
11,000 miles
How it works
11,000 miles
11,000 miles
11,000 miles
3 or more satellites:
You can determine your position
How it works
Only 2 satellites:
You cannot determine your position
Satellites broadcast signals in the L-band of the microwave spectrum
(between microwave and radio wavelengths: 1 cm to 1 m wavelengths)

These wavelengths can pass through some forest canopies, but may be
blocked by tree trunks. Especially if the signal comes in at a low angle
on the horizon.

The speed of each signal emitted by a satellite is 186,000 miles/second
(speed of light).

If a satellite is 11,000 miles away, it takes about 1/17 of a second for the
signal to leave the satellite and reach a receiver.
Spectral resolution
An ephemeris (its own location).

An almanac (the location of all other satellites).

A signal that indicates the time being sent (to enable you to triangulate
your position on the landscape).

What does each satellite send out?
Precise clocks in each satellite, and relatively precise clocks in
GPS receivers

Receiver calculates distance to each satellite based on time required
for signal to arrive
The secret to GPS is time.
Coarse Acquisition code (CA)

Carrier Phase Code (L1 and L2)

Military (P Code)
Types of GPS Signals
3 different signals are emitted by GPS satellites
Most widely used GPS signal

Least accurate GPS signal

Simple and cost-effective to use

Since satellites and receivers may not be set exactly on the
same time, determining how long it has been since the
satellite sent the signal may result in some inaccuracies.
C/A code - Coarse Acquisition code
More detailed analysis of each signal within the receiver

More accurate GPS signal than C/A code signal

Time consuming and expensive to use

Used for surveying and benchmark location.
Carrier Phase code (L-1, L-2)
Reserved for military use
P code
Sources of Error in GPS Signals
Sources of error in GPS signals (in order of significance):
Multi-path Error

Selective Availability

Receiver Clock

Atmosphere

Satellite Clock

Ephemeris Error
Ephemeris errors

Satellite may not be exactly where it says it is in its ephemeris
Satellite location
Satellites carry atomic clocks

These clocks are highly precise, and frequently adjusted to the
clocks used at ground stations, however, there still may be
some slight differences in clock times.

A very slight difference may result in an inaccurate location
determination.
Satellite clocks
The clock on a GPS receiver must be synchronized exactly
with the satellite's clock.

A larger source of error than satellite clock error
Receiver clock
Deflection of signals when passing through the
ionosphere and troposphere

The least amount of deflection, when the signal passes
through the atmosphere, is when the satellite is directly
overhead of the receiver.
Atmospheric Interference
A delay in receiving a signal from a satellite, due to the signal
bouncing off of other objects, such as trees or buildings.
Multipath error
Multipath error
from Hoar, G.J. 1982. Satellite surveying: Theory, geodesy, map projections. Magnavox
Advanced Products and Systems Co. Torrance, CA.
Selective Availability
Intentional degradation of GPS signals by Department of Defense.
Recap: Sources of Error in GPS Signals
Positional Uncertainty for GPS Solutions
GDOP - Geometric Dilution of Position
PDOP/LDOP - Positional / Locational Dilution of Position
We get better solutions for positions when satellites are more
widely spaced than when they are all clustered overhead
Error associated with this dilution of solution is generally
given on most receivers as a GDOP or PDOP value. The
lower the value, the better the position.
Simultaneous collection of data with two receivers:

(1) a "base station," which can be found in
a fixed location within
200 miles of the area where
data is being collected.

(2) a "rover," the GPS unit you are using
in the field.
Differential Correction
A technique that allows improved accuracy of collected data
Some of the differences (errors) between the base station and rover
data can be recognized, and removed from the rover's data.

Requires post-processing of field data.

(1) download the rover data

(2) download the base station data

(3) use software to make the corrections

Remove or reduce all errors except multipath.
Differential correction continues to provide significant improvement of positional
accuracy even after Selective Availability was turned off in May 2000.
SA On SA Off SA Off with
WAAS - Wide Area Augmentation System
A different approach to
differential correction

25 ground stations, administered
by FAA, collect GPS data

Differentially corrected data sent
back up to WAAS satellite in
geostationary orbit.

WAAS satellites transmit
corrections (currently only covers
N. America).

WAAS enabled devices use information
to improve positional accuracy.

Many modern recreational grade receivers are
WAAS enabled.
RDGPS - Real-Time Differentially Corrected GPS
Differential correction is done on-the-fly in the roving receiver.

Base station data are collected and transmitted via radio signals.

Receivers equipped to do RDGPS can pick up radio signals with corrections
and do differential correction real time.

US Coast Guard has a network of base stations which transmit correction
data for free. Only available along coastlines, great lakes and portions of
Mississippi River.

Many subscription services in North America.
Each satellite that is tracked requires a "channel" in the receiver.
Receivers generally have 6, 8, or 12 channels available.

Recreation-grade receivers: designed for casual users (recreationists).
Typically uses CA code, and has the least accurate positioning ability.

Navigating receivers: same as recreation receivers, designed for portability
and long battery life.

Mapping-grade receivers: Designed to include more features, allow higher
accuracy, and to store more data, as well as attribute data. Typically use L1,
L2 code.

Survey-grade receivers: Designed for extreme accuracy. Usually larger
and heavier than other receiver types. Very expensive. Typically use L1, L2
code.
GPS Equipment
Receivers
GPS Equipment
Receivers
How much for that receiver in
the window?

Recreation Grade:
$75 - $600
dramatic drop in prices over last 2
years

Mapping Grade:
$600 - $10,000

Survey Grade:
$10,000 - $50,000

GPS Equipment
Receivers
What kind of positional accuracy
can I get? (Horizontal accuracy)

Recreation Grade:
1 - 3 meters possible,
typically requires post processing or
realtime correction.

Mapping Grade:
1m - sub-meter possible

Survey Grade:
1-5 cm (yes, centimeters!)

Mounted on a roof, a pole, a truck, or a person.
GPS Equipment
Antennas
Types of Data Collected
Generally, points or lines
GPS Project Planning
What to keep in mind when considering using GPS
1) When is the best time to collect the data?

2) How much time will I need to collect the data?

3) Do I need to differentially correct the data?
Where is the base station?
Will the base station have data covering my time period?

4) Do I need to remove multipath error?

5) Will the GPS data be integrated with other GIS data?
Do the features need to connect?
Do the features need to be attributed?
GPS Project Planning
Mission Planning Software
What is the name of this landscape feature?
Why are these trees red? Why are some of them yellow?
What are these red areas?
What are these dots?
Whats going on here?

Gps Lecture

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FOR 220 Aerial Photo

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