Dr.

Bahauddin Karagozuglu 1
Basic Concepts
Of
Medical Instrumentation
Dr. Bahauddin Karagozuglu 2
Block diagram of a generalized
instrumentation system
Dr. Bahauddin Karagozuglu 3
The Bourdon
Gauge
Dr. Bahauddin Karagozuglu 4
Block diagram of the
pressure gauge based
on Bourdon tube
Physical variable
to be measured
Pressure
Detector transducer stage
Bourdon tube
Pressure to mechanical
displacement
Intermediate stage
Gearing arrangement that
amplifies the displacement
signal
Pressure
(input)
Pressure
(calibration)
Displacement
( transduced signal)
Amplified displacement
signal
Calibration signal from
a source with known
pressure values
Final stage
Pointer and dial
arrangement
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Sensor
Data
communication
Data
displays
Effector
Measurand
Signal
conditioning
Signal
processing
Data
storage
Feedback
Outputs
A typical medical measurement
system
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Instrument
Patient
Instrument
Patient
Clinician
Feedback with and without
clinician
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Instrument Patient Clinician
Abnormal
readings
A patient monitors vital signs and
notify a clinician if abnormalities
occur
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Detailed generalized medical
measurement system
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Alternative operational modes
Direct-indirect modes
Sampling and continuous modes
Generating and modulating sensors
Analog and digital modes
Real-time and delayed-time modes
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Laboratory test Typical value
Hemoglobin 13.5 to 18 g/dL
Hematocrit 40 to 54%
Erythrocyte count 4.6 to 6.2 10
6
/ L
Leukocyte count 4500 to 11000/ L
Differential count
Neutrophil 35 to 71%
Band 0 to 6%
Lymphocyte 1 to 10%
Monocyte 1 to 10%
Eosinophil 0 to 4%
Basophil 0 to 2%
Complete blood count for a male subject.
Example to sampled data
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Analog and digital signals
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Time
Analog signals can have any
amplitude value
Digital signals have a limited
number of amplitude values
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Continuous and discrete-time signals
Time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Time
Continuous signals have values
at every instant of time
Discrete-time signals are sampled
periodically and do not provide
values between these sampling times
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Origins of
common
biological
signal
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Measurement Range Frequency, Hz Method
Blood flow 1 to 300 mL/s 0 to 20 Electromagnetic or ultrasonic
Blood pressure 0 to 400 mmHg 0 to 50 Cuff or strain gage
Cardiac output 4 to 25 L/min 0 to 20 Fick, dye dilution
Electrocardiography 0.5 to 4 mV 0.05 to 150 Skin electrodes
Electroencephalography 5 to 300 V 0.5 to 150 Scalp electrodes
Electromyography 0.1 to 5 mV 0 to 10000 Needle electrodes
Electroretinography 0 to 900 V 0 to 50 Contact lens electrodes
pH 3 to 13 pH units 0 to 1 pH electrode
pCO
2
40 to 100 mmHg 0 to 2 pCO
2
electrode
pO
2
30 to 100 mmHg 0 to 2 pO
2
electrode
Pneumotachography 0 to 600 L/min 0 to 40 Pneumotachometer
Respiratory rate
2 to 50
breaths/min
0.1 to 10 Impedance
Temperature 32 to 40 C 0 to 0.1 Thermistor
Medical measurement constraints
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Specification Value
Pressure range 30 to +300 mmHg
Overpressure without damage 400 to +4000 mmHg
Maximum unbalance 75 mmHg
Linearity and hysteresis 2% of reading or 1 mmHg
Risk current at 120 V 10 A
Defibrillator withstand 360 J into 50 O
Sensor specifications for a blood pressure sensor are
determined by a committee composed of individuals from
academia, industry, hospitals, and government.
Setting sensor specifications
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Specification Value
Input signal dynamic range 5 mV
Dc offset voltage 300 mV
Slew rate 320 mV/s
Frequency response 0.05 to 150 Hz
Input impedance at 10 Hz 2.5 MO
Dc lead current 0.1 A
Return time after lead switch 1 s
Overload voltage without damage 5000 V
Risk current at 120 V 10 A
Specification values for an electrocardiograph are agreed
upon by a committee.
Specifications for ECG
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Classification of biomedical
instruments
Quantity sensed: pressure, flow, temperature
etc.
Principle of transduction: resistive, inductive,
capacitive, ultrasonic or electrochemical
Organ system studied: cardiovascular,
pulmonary, nervous, and endocrine systems.
Clinical medical specialties: pediatrics,
obstetrics, cardiology, or radiology.
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Interfering and modifying inputs
Original waveform
An interfering
input may shift
the baseline
A modifying
input may
change the gain
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Simplified
Electrocardiographic
recording system
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Compensation Techniques
Inherent insensitivity
Negative feedback
Signal filtering
Opposing inputs
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Negative feedback
d
d f
d
d f d d
d f d
x
G H
G
y
G H y G x
y G y H x
+
=
+ =
=
1
) 1 (
) (
G
d

H
f

x
d

y
+
-
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Interference superimposed on
signals causes error.
Frequency filters can be used
to reduce noise and
interference
Signal filtering
Signals without noise are
uncorrupted
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Opposing inputs
Differential amplifier: v
0
= G
d
(v
A
- v
B
)
DC cancellation (bucking)
Time
Amplitude
Time
Amplitude
Dc offset
An input signal without dc
offset
An input signal with dc offset
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Generalized Static Characteristics
Accuracy
Precision and
reproducibility
Resolution
Statistical control
Static sensitivity
Zero drift
Sensitivity drift
Linearity
Input ranges
Input impedance
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Accuracy
Data points with
low accuracy
high accuracy
value true
value measured value true
accuracy

=
Accuracy: closeness with which an
instrument reading approaches the
true or accepted value of the variable
(quantity) being measured. It is
considered to be an indicator of the
total error in the measurement without
looking into the sources of errors.
Accuracy is often expressed in percentage
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Precision
Data points with
low precision
high precision
1. A measure of the reproducibility
of the measurements; i.e., given a
fixed value of a variable,
precision is a measure of the
degree to which successive
measurements differ from one
another.
2. Number of distinguishable
alternatives. 2.434 V is more
precise than 2.43 V.

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Resolution
The smallest change in measured value to
which the instrument will respond.
Statistical control: random variations
in measured quantities are tolerable,
Coulter counter example
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Tolerance
Maximum deviation allowed from the conventional true
value.
It is not possible to built a perfect system or make an
exact measurement. All devices deviate from their ideal
(design) characteristics and all measurements include
uncertainties (doubts).
Hence, all devices include tolerances in their
specifications. If the instrument is used for high-
precision applications, the design tolerances must be
small.
However, if a low degree of accuracy is acceptable, it is
not economical to use expensive sensors and precise
sensing components
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Static sensitivity
Sensor
signal
Measurand
Sensor
signal
Measurand
A low-sensitivity sensor has low
gain
A high sensitivity sensor has
high gain
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Static sensitivity constant over a limited range

=
2 2
) (
) )( (
d d
d d
x x n
y x y x n
m

=
2 2
2
) (
) )( ( ) )( (
d d
d d d
x x n
x y x x y
b
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Zero and sensitivity drifts
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Linearity
Output
Input
Output
Input
A linear system fits the
equation y = mx + b.
A nonlinear system does not fit
a straight line
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Calibration for linearity
Output
Input
Output
Input
The one-point calibration may
miss nonlinearity
The two-point calibration may
also miss nonlinearity
Measuring instruments should be calibrated against a
standard that has an accuracy 3 to 10 times better than the
desired calibration accuracy
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Hysteresis
Sensor
signal
Measurand
A hysteresis loop. The output curve obtained when increasing the
measurand is different from the output obtained when decreasing
the measurand.
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Independent nonlinearity
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Input ranges
Time
Amplitude
5 mV
-5 mV
Dynamic
Range
Time
Amplitude
1 V
-1 V
An input signal which
exceeds the dynamic
range
The resulting amplified signal is
saturated at 1 V
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Input impedance
System
X
d1
: effort
variable
X
d2
: flow
variable
iable flow
iable effort
X
X
Z
d
d
x
var
var
2
1
= =
2
2
2
1
2 1 d x
x
d
d d
X Z
Z
X
X X P = = - =
Output