Revision of Spread Spectrum Technology ?

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 Revision
What is Spread Spectrum Technology
− In Spread Spectrum communication,
? the bandwidth
occupancy of a single transmitted signal is much higher
than in systems using conventional modulation methods.

− This band-spreading is achieved by selecting appropriate

transmission waveforms with a wide bandwidth.

− A very popular method is to multiply the user data signal

with a fast code sequence, which mostly is independent
of the transmitted data message. In the case that
multiple users share the same portion of the radio
spectrum but use different codes to distinguish their
transmissions, we speak of Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)

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 Advantages of Spread Spectrum
− As the signal is spread over a large frequency band, the
Power Spectral Density becomes very small. Other
communications systems may not suffer from this kind
of communications.

− Confidentiality: without knowing the spreading code, it

is difficult to recover the transmitted data. Moreover, as
the spectral density is small, the signal may remain
undetected.

− Spreading and despreading makes the signal robust

against interference. This also holds for Multipath self
interference.

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 Advantages of Spread Spectrum

− Fading rejection: as the bandwidth can be

made much larger than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel, the system is less
susceptible to deep fades at particular
frequencies.

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 Advantages of Spread Spectrum

− Originally developed for military and

navigation purposes
 Hard to be intercepted
 Anti-jamming

− Nowadays feasible for commercial

applications especially for mobile
communication systems

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 Classification of Spread Spectrum Techniques

− Various spread-spectrum techniques have

been proposed:

 Direct-Sequence

 Frequency-Hopping

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Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

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 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The duration of an element in the code is called the "chip time".

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Direct Sequence CDMA

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 DSSS Transmission

Data A
0 1 0 0
Tb
Spreading Code B
Transmitter

chip

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Tc
Spread Signal C = A + B
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
10
Spreading
DSSS Reception

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 DSSS Reception

Received Signal C

0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Locally Generated Spreading Code B

Receiver

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Data output A = C + B

0 1 0 0

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Despreading
Processing Gain

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 Processing Gain

− The ratio between the user symbol time and the

chip time is called the spread factor. The
transmit signal occupies a bandwidth that
equals the spread factor times the bandwidth of
the user data

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Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

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 Orthogonal
Spreading & DeSpreading Example

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 Orthogonal Spreading

− Orthogonal Spreading

 As the principle behind spreading and despreading

is that when a symbol is XORed with a known
pattern and the result is again XORed with the
same pattern, the original symbol is recovered. In
other words, the effect of an XOR operation if
performed twice using the same code is null.

 In orthogonal spreading, each encoded symbol is

XORed with all 64 chips of the Walsh code.

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Orthogonal Sequences –Channelization Using Orthogonal
Spreading

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Orthogonal Sequences –Channelization Using Orthogonal
Spreading
− Example of Channelization Using
Orthogonal Spreading
− By spreading, each symbol is XORed with all
the chips in the orthogonal sequence (Walsh
sequence) assigned to the user.
− The resulting sequence is processed and is
then transmitted over the Physical Channel
along with other spread symbols.
− In this figure, a 4-digit code is used. The
product of the user symbols and the
spreading code is a sequence of digits that
must be transmitted at 4 times the rate of the
original encoded binary signal.
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Orthogonal Sequences – Recovery of Spread Symbols

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 Orthogonal Sequences – Recovery of Spread Symbols

−Recovery of Spread Symbols

−The receiver despreads the chips by using the
same Walsh code used at the transmitter.
−Notice that under no-noise conditions, the
symbols or digits are completely recovered
without any error.
−In reality, the channel is not noise-free, but
CDMA2000 systems employ Forward Error
Correction (FEC) techniques to combat the
effects of noise and enhance the performance
of the system.

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 Orthogonal
Spreading & DeSpreading Example
(With 3 Users)

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 An Example of Spreading with
3 Users
− In this example, three users, A, B, and C are
assigned three orthogonal codes for
spreading purposes
 User A signal = 00, Spreading Code = 0101
 User B signal = 10, Spreading Code = 0011
 User C signal = 11, Spreading Code = 0000
− The analog signal shown on the bottom of
the figure is the composite signal when all of
the spread symbols are summed together.

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24
 DeSpreading Example
At the Receiver of User A

−At the receiver of user A, the composite analog

signal is multiplied by the Walsh code
corresponding to user A and the result is then
averaged over the symbol time. This process is
called correlation.
−Note that the average voltage value over one
symbol time is equal to 1.
−Therefore, the original bit transmitted by A was
“0”.
−You may try to decode the symbols for users B
or C in the same manner. This process occurs
in the CDMA mobile for recovering the signals.
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26
CDMA Power Control

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 Power Control
− Power control can substantially impact the capacity
and perceived quality in cellular wireless systems.

− High Speed Quality , High Capacity and Low Power

Consumption are major goals in cellular radio
Communication System.

− Power Control is one of several Techniques used to

achieve these goal. Power Control regulates the
signal strength to reduce the overall interference

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 Power Control and MAI
− Interference limited multiple access system
 Regardless of the mode of multiple access -- be it
frequency, time or code division -- power control is
necessary to combat the intercell, or co-channel,
interference that arises from frequency reuse.

− In systems with multiple users, strong nearby

transmitters may completely block weak signals from
remote transmitters

− The power control problem arises due to multiple access

interference (MAI)
 Each user looks like random noise to other users and
causes unnecessary interference to the system
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 Power Control and Near-Far Problem
− Users near the base station are
received with high power

− Users far from the base station are

received with low power

− Nearby users will completely swamp

far away users

− Power control is implemented to

overcome the near-far problem reduce
MAI, and to maximize the capacity of
CDMA system

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 Why power control is needed
− If all mobiles transmitted at the same power level, the
base station would receive unnecessarily strong signals
from mobiles nearby and extremely weak signals from
mobiles that are far away. This would reduce the
capacity of the system.

− This problem is called the near-far problem . A major

difficulty in Direct Sequence transmission is the Near-Far
effect.

− In cellular CDMA systems, (adaptive) power control is

needed to avoid this problem; otherwise, the link
performance will suffer from the near-far effect, a
condition where the transmissions received from distant
MSs experience excessive interference from nearby
MSs.
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Summary --Power Control

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Summary --Power Control

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Summary --Power Control

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Summary --Power Control

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 Summary --Power Control
− The IS-95 reverse link employs a fast closed-
loop power control algorithm to combat
variations in the received signal power due
to path loss, shadowing, and fast envelope
fading (at low Doppler frequencies).

− A large number of power control algorithms

have been suggested

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 Summary --Power Control
− Reverse link power control consists of two processes:
 Open loop
 Closed loop

− Open loop is an initial estimate of the power the mobile

needs to transmit to the BTS. Closed loop is a
refinement of the open loop estimate

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 Open loop power control
− Open loop is the mobile's estimate of the power at
which it should transmit. The open loop estimate is
based on the strength of the pilot signal the mobile
receives.

− As the pilot signal gets weaker or stronger, the mobile

adjusts its transmission strength upwards or
downwards.

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 Closed loop power control
− In closed loop, the BTS sends a command to
the mobile to increase or decrease the
strength at which it is transmitting.
− The BTS determines this command based on
the quality of the signal it receives from the
mobile.

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Summary Power Control

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Summary Power Control

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CDMA Frequency Reuse

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 Cell Interference

• If cell A and B were on the same frequency in a conventional cellular

systems, area C would have a frequency conflict and interference.
• With the deployment of a FDMA network channel (frequency) reuse is
required.
• In the FDMA system there is a conflict when adjacent cells use the same
channel (frequency).

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FDMA/TDMA Frequency Reuse

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45
 FDMA/TDMA Frequency Reuse

− Frequency Reuse of 7

 To avoid conflict between cells, FDMA and

TDMA systems use a reuse factor of seven (six
cells surrounding each cell cannot use the
same frequency).
 Adjacent cells will be assigned to separate
channels (frequencies).
 As capacity requirements increase additional
cells will be added to the network creating a
reworking of the frequency plan in the network.
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 FDMA/TDMA Frequency Reuse

− Cell Separation
 A channel (frequency) can be used again
within the network but cells using the same
channel must be separated by an appropriate
distance.

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CDMA Frequency Reuse

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CDMA Frequency Reuse

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 CDMA Frequency Reuse

− CDMA Universal Frequency Reuse

 CDMA has a frequency reuse of one.

 Each BTS in the network uses the same

frequency eliminating the need for frequency
planning.

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51
CDMA Rake Receiver

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 Multipath

−What is multipath?
 Signals sent over the air can take a direct path to the
mobile, bounce off objects,and arrive at the mobile’s
antenna at different times.
 These different paths are referred to as multi-paths.

−Effects of multipath signals

 Multipath signals in a narrow band signal, such as
FDMA and TDMA, may cause a loss of the signal
through cancellation .
 Multipaths in CDMA can be used to increase the
quality of the signal.
 This is possible because CDMA is a wideband signal.
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Multipaths

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Multipaths

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Multipaths

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Multipaths

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Multipaths

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 CDMA Receiver- Rake Receiver

− The rake receiver is multiple receivers in one.

− There is a rake receiver at both the mobile and BTS.

− Each receiver may assigned to a received signal.

− The rake receiver is a CDMA feature that turns what is a problem in other
technologies into an advantage for CDMA

− Multi-paths can cause a loss of signal through cancellation in other technologies

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CDMA RAKE Receiver

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 CDMA RAKE Receiver
− The rake receiver identifies

the multi-path signals

&

combines the multi-path signals

to produce
one very strong signal
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CDMA RAKE Receiver

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 CDMA RAKE Receiver

Correlator 1

Correlator 2 Combiner The combined

Receive set signal
Correlator 3

Calculate the
Searcher correlator
time delay and
signal strength
s(t) s(t)

t t

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CDMA Soft Handoff

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 What is a Handoff?

− As the phone moves through a network the

system controller transfers the call from one
cell to another, this process is called
“handoff”.

− Handoffs maybe done with the assistance of

the mobile or the system controller will
control the process by itself.

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 Handoff

− transfers the call to a new channel belonging to

new BS.

− Handoff is a process, which allows users to remain

in touch, even while breaking the connection
with one BS and establishing connection with
another BS.

− To keep the conversation going, the Handoff

procedure should be completed while the mobile
station is in the overlap region

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 Handoff

Cell overlap region

Old BS New BS

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What is a Handoff?

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 Handoff
− Handoff detection strategies

−Mobile-Controlled handoff (MCHO)

−Network-Controlled handoff (NCHO)

• Mobile-Assisted handoff (MAHO)

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 Mobile-Controlled Handoff (MCHO)

− In this strategy, the MS continuously monitors the

radio signal strength and quality of the surrounding
BSs.

− When predefined criteria are met, then the MS

checks for the best candidate BS for an available
traffic channel and requests the handoff to occur.

− MCHO is used in DECT

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 Network-Controlled Handoff (NCHO)

− In this strategy, the surrounding BSs, the MSC or

both monitor the radio signal.

− When the signal’s strength and quality

deteriorate below a predefined threshold, the
network arranges for a handoff to another
channel.

− NCHO is used in CT-2 Plus and AMPS.

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 Mobile-Assisted Handoff (MAHO)

− It is a variant of NCHO strategy.

− In this strategy, the system directs the MS to

measure the signal from the surrounding BSs and
to report those measurements back to the
network.

− The network then uses these measurements to

determine where a handoff is required.

− MAHO is used in GSM and IS-95 CDMA.

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 Handoff

− Break-Before-Make

 In a “hard” handoff, the mobile must disconnect (or break)

its connection before connecting to the new cell.

 As the mobile moves from one coverage area to another,

the mobile will be instructed to change to the new network.

− Advantages of Hard Handoff

 Continue the call beyond the current network.

 Provide expanded service.

 Reduce dropped calls.

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 Handoff
− Make-Before-Break
 A new connection can be made prior to breaking the
old connection. This is possible because CDMA cells
use the same frequency and the mobile uses a
rake receiver.

 In a CDMA system, while a call is in progress, the

mobile assists the network in making a new
connection before breaking the old connection.

 As the mobile moves from one coverage area to

another, the mobile detects a new pilot and the base
station establishes a new connection for the mobile.

 A communications link is established with new BTS’

while the old link is maintained.
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Soft Handoff

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 Soft Handoff
−CDMA uses the mobile to assist the network
in the handoff. Soft Handoff is Mobile
Assisted`

−Soft handoffs occur between cells, sectors in

a cell, or combination of cells and sectors.

−Different sectors are allowed to use different

Walsh sequences when in soft handoff.

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Soft Handoff

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Soft Handoff

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Soft Handoff Advantages

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 Handoffs between CDMA to Analog systems—Hard Handoffs

− Hard handoffs occur between CDMA to Analog systems.

− A hard handoff entails a brief disconnection from a current

serving cell prior to establishing a connection with the
target cell during the handoff.

− Hard handoffs can occur for several reasons. Hard handoff

occurs when a soft handoff cannot take place (either due to
lack of resources or due to the inability to transmit identical
frames from both cells).

− Hard handoffs can also occur between CDMA cells. CDMA-to-

CDMA hard handoffs are due to frequency mismatches etc.

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Codes in CDMA

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 Codes in CDMA

CDMA Codes

Orthogonal Codes Pseudo-noise (PN) Codes

Walsh Codes
Walsh Codes Long PN Code Short PN
Short PN Codes
Codes

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Walsh Codes

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 Code Basics – XOR Function

− XOR Function
− The figure depicts a two-input XOR
gate and its corresponding truth
table. A and B denote the inputs,
while Y denotes its output. The
XOR operation (or function) is
simply defined by the equation:

− The XOR gate produces a one

when the two inputs are at
opposite levels.
− When the total number of ones at
the inputs is odd, the result of
XORing them is “1”.
− This operation is also needed for
the upcoming discussion of codes.

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 Walsh Codes

Two codes are orthogonal if the process of “XORing”

them results in an equal number of 1’s and 0’s

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 Walsh Codes

XORing Equal No. of 0s & 1s

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Walsh Codes Generation

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 Walsh Codes Generation

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0

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Walsh Codes Generation

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 Walsh Codes
Matrix Generation

• Walsh codes are easily generated by starting with a

seed of 0
H1 = 0
HN HN
H2 =
0 0
H 2N =
0 1
HN HN
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
H4 =
0 0 1 1
90
0 1 1 0
Walsh Codes Generation

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Frequency
Spreading Code 4

Spreading Code 3

Spreading Code 2

Spreading Code 1

Time
CDMA 92
 Walsh Codes in
CDMA2000 1x RC1 & RC2 IS-95A (cdmaone)

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94
Walsh Codes

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Important Note -----CDMA2000 Radio
Configurations

96
 Orthogonal Sequences –Walsh Usage
− RC1 and RC2 use Walsh 64.

− RC3 through RC9 use variable length Walsh

functions.
 1x typically uses 64 and 128 length.

− Length is a function of data rate.

− For 1x the Walsh chip rate is always 1.2288

Mcps.
97
 Orthogonal Sequences –Walsh Usage
− Walsh Usage
 In RC1 and RC2 ,only Walsh 64 is used.

 RC3 through RC9 use variable length Walsh functions

to handle different data rates. For RC3, voice calls
use Walsh 64, while for RC4 voice calls use Walsh
128.

 The higher the data rate, the shorter the Walsh

function used.

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PN Codes

99
 PN Codes

PN Codes

Long PN Codes Short PN Codes

100
Short PN Code

101
Short PN Code

102
PNc

PNb

PNa

103
Short PN Code

104
 Short PN Code Offsets

215 / 64 = 32768 / 64 = 512 105

Short PN Code Offsets

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Short PN Code Offsets

107
 PN Planning Analysis –
Example PN Offset Reuse

37 * 3 = 111 offsets
used in a cluster of 37 cells

17 offsets are
available for growth

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 Long PN Code
− PN sequences have an important property: time-
shifted versions of the same PN sequence have
very little correlation with each other

− The channelization of users in the Reverse link is

accomplished by assigning them different time
shifted versions of the long code, thus making
them uncorrelated with each other.

− This property is then exploited to separate

subscriber’s signals in the BTS receivers.

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 Long PN Code

242 -1 = 4400 Billion Chips

110
Long PN Code Offsets
Reverse Link

111
What We Learned

112
PN Code Generation & Offsets

113
PN Code Generation

114
PN Code Generation

115
PN Code Generation

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 PN Code Generation

2N-1
In this example, the number of distinct states
in the shift registers is 23-1=7

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 PN Code Offsets (Masking)
− Sequence Produced by a Masked Generator

− Masking provides the shift in time for PN codes. Different

masks correspond to different time shifts.

− A mask produces the same original sequence shifted in time.

− Masking is used to produce offsets in both the short codes and

the long code.

− The offsets of the short PN codes are used to uniquely identify

the Forward Channels of individual sectors or cells.

− The offsets of the Long PN code are used to separate code

channels in the reverse direction.
118
 Walsh Code Function in Forward Link

Pilot
Sync
FW Traffic FW Traffic
(for user #1) (for user #2)
Paging
FW Traffic
(for user #3)

 A Mobile Station receives a Forward Channel from a sector in a

Base Station.
 The Forward Channel carries a composite signal of up to 64
forward code channels.
 Some code channels are traffic channels and others are
overhead channels.
 W0= Pilot, W1=Paging, W32= Synchronous, all other for traffic.

119 119
 Short PN Function in Forward Link

Up to 64 Up to 64
Code Channels Code Channels
A B
 A mobile Station is surrounded by Base Stations, all of them
transmitting on the same CDMA Frequency.
 Each Sector in each Base Station is transmitting a Forward Traffic
Channel containing up to 64 forward code channels.
 A Mobile Station must be able to discriminate between different
Sectors of different Base Stations.
 Short PN Codes are defined for the purpose of identifying sectors
of different base stations.
 These Short PN Sequences can be used in 512 different ways in a
CDMA system. Each one of them constitutes a mathematical code
which can be used to identify a particular sector.

120 120
 Long PN Function in Reverse Link

 The CDMA system must be able to

identify each Mobile Station that may
RV Traffic attempt to communicate with a Base
from M.S. Station.
#1837732008
RV Traffic − A very large number of Mobile Stations
from M.S. will be in the market.
#1997061104
− One binary digit sequence called the
Long PN Sequence (or Long PN Code) is
defined for the purpose of uniquely
identifying each possible reverse code
channel.
− This sequence is extremely long and
can be used in trillions of different
RV Traffic
System Access
from M.S. ways. Each one of them constitutes a
Attempt by M.S. mathematical code which can be used
#2000071301 #1994011508
(on access channel #1) to identify a particular user (and is then
called a User Long Code) or a particular
“user Reverse Traffic channel”.

UUUUUU 121 121

Technology choice for WLL

122
Technology choice for WLL

123
WLL Technology Selection Criteria

124
 GSM as WLL

− GSM has cheaper CPE

− GSM is most widely deployed MOBILE
SYSTEM
− Low spectral efficiency
− Low data capability: GSM=9.6kbps, GPRS=
54kbps
− The migration path of GSM towards 3G
ends up at WCDMA
− GSM not available in 450MHz
125
 CDMA (CDMA2000 1x) as WLL

− Most widely deployed WLL solution in the

world
− High spectral efficiency to handle
Wireline like traffic
− Data capability inherent in system (up to
144kbps)
− Backward and forward compatibility
− Available in 450, 800 and 1900MHz

126
127
 CDMA2000
Radio Configurations

128
 CDMA Channel or CDMA Carrier or CDMA Frequency
− Duplex channel made of two 1.25 MHz-wide bands of
electromagnetic spectrum, one for Base Station to Mobile
Station communication (called the FORWARD LINK or the
DOWNLINK) and another for Mobile Station to Base Station
communication (called the REVERSE LINK or the UPLINK)

− In 800 Cellular these two simplex 1.25 MHz bands are 45 MHz
apart

− In 1900 MHz they are 80 MHz apart

− CDMA Forward Channel CDMA CHANNEL
 1.25 MHz Forward Link CDMA
Reverse
CDMA
Forward
Channel 1.25 Channel 1.25
− CDMA Reverse Channel MHz MHz

 1.25 MHz Reverse Link

45 or 80 MHz 129
CDMA 2000

130
 CDMA 2000 Platforms

CDMA2000-1x CDMA2000- CDMA2000- CDMA2000-3X

(1xRTT) 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DV (3xRTT)

131
CDMA 2000 1x (1x RTT)

132
CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO

133
CDMA 2000 1xEV-DO

134
CDMA 2000 1xEV-DV

135
CDMA 2000 3xRTT

136
CDMA2000 Radio Configurations

137
 Rate Sets
− A Rate Set is a set of Traffic Channel frame formats.

− A Rate Set may carry voice, user data, or signaling.

− Two Rate Sets are defined for use in cdma One

systems. All services provided over the air interface
must conform to one of these two rate sets:
 Rate Set 1 — supports a maximum of 8550 bps, with
an additional 1050 bits of overhead for a total max
rate of 9600 bps.
 Rate Set 2 — supports a maximum of 13,300 bps,
with additional overhead bringing the total
transmission rate to 14,400 bps maximum.

138
 Radio Configurations- Forward Link

− Orthogonal Transmit Diversity splits transmitted symbols into two streams with
each stream being transmitted on an antenna

139
Radio Configurations- Forward Link

140
Radio Configurations- Reverse Link

141
Spreading Rate (SR1) & Spreading Rate ( SR3)

142
Spreading Rate (SR1) And
Spreading Rate ( SR3)

143
Spreading Rate (SR1) also called 1x

144
Spreading Rate (SR3) also called
3x or MC ( Multi-Carrier)

145