FUNDAMENTALS OF C++

Computer Languages
What is a computer language?
All data transmission, manipulation, storage, and retrieval is
done by the machine using electrical pulses representing
sequences of binary digits. If eight-digit binary codes are
used, there are 256 numbered instructions from 00000000 to
11111111. Instruction for adding two numbers would consist
of a sequence of these eight-digit codes.
Cont. Computer Languages
Instruction written in this form are referred to machine
language. It is possible to write an entire program in
machine language. However, this is very time consuming
and difficult for computer programmers to read and
understand.
Therefore, the next level of computer language allows
words and symbols to be used in an unsophisticated
manner to accomplish simple task.
Cont. Computer Languages
For example, the machine code for adding two integers
might be.

010000110011101000111101010000010010101101000010

This is replaced by

LOAD A
ADD B
STORE C

This causes the number A to be added to the number B, and the
result is stored for the later used in C.

Cont. Computer Languages
This computer language is an assembly language, which
is generally referred to as a low-level language. What
actually happen is that words and symbols are translated
into appropriate binary digits and the machine uses the
translated form.
Although assembly language is an improvement on
machine language for readability and program
development, it is still a bit cumbersome. Consequently,
many high-level languages have been developed; these
include Pascal, PL/I, FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, C, Ada,
Modula-2, Logo, Java, C++ and others.

Cont. Computer Languages
These languages simplify even further the terminology and
symbolism necessary for directing the machine to perform
various manipulation of data. For example, in these
languages, the task of adding two integers would be written
as

C:=A + B; (Pascal, Modula-2, Ada)
C=A + B ; (PL/I, C++)
C=A + B (FORTRAN, BASIC)
ADD A, B GIVING C (COBOL)
MAKE C :A + :B (Logo)

A high-level language makes it easier to read, write and
understand a program.
Cont. Computer Languages
Lets consider how an instruction such as

C =A + B ;

get translated into a machine code. The actual bit patterns for this code
varies according to the machine and software version, but it could be
previously indicated. For the translation to happen, a special program
called compiler reads the high-level instructions and translates them
into machine code. This compiled version id then run using some
appropriate data and the results are presented through some form of
output device. The special programs that activate the compiler, run the
machine code version, and cause output to be printed are examples of
system programs(software)
Cont. Computer Languages
The written program is a source program (also referred to as source code)
and the machine-code version generated by the compiler is an object
program(also referred to object code).
The compiler does more than just translate instruction into machine code. It
also detects certain errors in your source program and prints appropriate
messages. For example, if you write the instruction

C = (A + B;

In which parenthesis is missing, when the compiler attempts to translate
this line into machine code, it will detect that ) is needed to close the
parenthetical expression. It will then give you an error message.
Cont. Computer Languages
ERROR: ) expected

You will then need to correct the error (and
any others) and recomplete your source program
before running it with the data.

Problem-Solving
Fundamentals: Data Types
and Output
Program Development Top Down Design
Program Development Top
Down Design
The key in writing a successful program is
planning. Good program do not just happen;
they are the result of careful design and
patience. A good computer programmer does not
attack a problem by immediately trying to write
a code for a program to solve the problem.
Cont. Program Development Top
Down Design
Six Steps to Good Programming Habits
In developing a program to solve a problem, six steps should be
followed: analyze the problem, develop an algorithm,
document a program, write code for the program, run the
program and test the results. These steps will help develop
good problem-solving habits and in turn solve programming
problems correctly.

Cont. Program Development Top
Down Design
Step 1 : Analyze the Problem
This is not a trivial task. Before you can do anything,
you must know exactly what it is you are to do. You must
formulate a clear and precise statement of what is to be
done. You should understand completely what data are
available and what may be assumed. You should also know
exactly what output is desired and the form it should take.
When analyzing a complex problem, it helps to divide the
problem into sub-problems whose solutions can be
developed and tested independently before they are
combined into a complete solution.
Cont. Program Development Top
Down Design
Step 2: Develop an Algorithm
An algorithm is a finite sequence of effective
statements that, when applied to the problem, will solve it.
An effective statement is clear, unambiguous instruction
that can be carried out. Each algorithm you develop should
have a specific beginning. By the completion of one step,
the next step should be uniquely determined. And it should
have an ending that is reached in reasonable amount of
time.
Cont. Program Development Top Down Design
Step 3: Document the Program
It is very important to completely document a program. The writer knows
how the program works if others are to modify it, they must know the
logic used. Moreover users will need to know the details of how to use the
program effectively. Some documentation can come directly out of step 1
and step 2.

Step 4: Write Code for the Program
When the algorithm correctly solves the problem, you can think about
translating your algorithms into a high-level language. An effective
algorithm will significantly reduce the time you need to complete this
step.
Cont. Program Development Top Down Design
Step 5: Run the Program
After writing the code, you are ready to run the program. This means
that, using an editor, you type the program code into the computer,
compile the programs and run it. At compile time, you may discover
syntax errors, which are mistakes in the way you have formed sentences
in the program. Once these errors have been corrected, you may discover
other errors at run time. Some of these mistakes may be as simple
attempts to divide by zero. Other errors, called logic errors, may be
subtler and cause the program to produce mysterious results. This may
require a reevaluation of all or part of your algorithm. The probability of
having to make some corrections or changes is quite high.
Cont. Program Development Top Down
Design
Step 6: Test the Results
After your program has run, you need to be sure that the results are
correct, that they are in a form you like, and that your program produces
the correct solution in all cases. To be sure the results are correct, you
must compare them with what you expect. In the case of program that
uses arithmetic operations, this means checking some results with pencil
and paper. With complex programs, you will need to test the program
thoroughly by running it many times using data that you have carefully
selected. Often you will need to make revisions by returning to one of the
previous steps.