Predation (Chapter 18)

1. Predator-prey cycles
2. Models of predation
3. Functional vs. numeric responses
4. Stability in predator-prey models
Two big themes:
1. Predators can limit prey populations.
This keeps populations below K.
2. Predator and prey populations
increase and decrease in regular
cycles.
A verbal model of predator-prey
cycles:
1. Predators eat prey and reduce their
numbers
2. Predators go hungry and decline in
number
3. With fewer predators, prey survive
better and increase
4. Increasing prey populations allow
predators to increase
And repeat
Why dont predators increase at the same
time as the prey?
The Lotka-Volterra Model:
Assumptions
1. Prey grow exponentially in the
absence of predators.
2. Predation is directly proportional to the
product of prey and predator
abundances (random encounters).
3. Predator populations grow based on
the number of prey. Death rates are
independent of prey abundance.
R = prey population size (resource)
P = predator population size



r = exponential growth rate of the prey
c = capture efficiency of the predators
cRP rR
dt
dR



cRP rR
dt
dR

rate of change in
the prey population
intrinsic growth
rate of the prey
removal of prey
by predators
For the predators:






a = efficiency with which prey are
converted into predators
d = death rate of predators
dP acRP
dt
dP

rate of change in the
predator population
conversion of prey
into new predators
death rate of
predators
Prey population reaches equilibrium when
dR/dt = 0
equilibrium state of balance between opposing
forces
populations at equilibrium do not change







Prey population stabilizes based on the size
of the predator population
cRP rR
dt
dR
0
c
r
P

Predator population reaches equilibrium

when dP/dt = 0





Predator population stabilizes based on
the size of the prey population
dP acRP
dt
dP
0
ac
d
R

Isocline a line along which

populations will not change over time.

Predator numbers will stay constant if R
= d/ac

Prey numbers will stay constant if P =
r/c.
Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
c
r
P

ac
d
R

Predators are stable when:

Prey are stable when:
Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
d/ac
r/c
Prey
Isocline
c
r
P

Prey are stable when:

Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
d/ac
Predator
isocline
ac
d
R

Predators are stable when:

Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
d/ac
r/c
equilibrium
c
r
P

ac
d
R

Predation (Chapter 18)

1. Finish Lotka-Volterra model
2. Functional vs. numeric responses
3. Stability in predator-prey cycles
Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
c
r
P

ac
d
R

d/ac
Number of predators depends on the prey population.
Predator
isocline
Predators
increase
Predators
decrease
Number of prey (R)
Number of
Predators (P)
c
r
P

ac
d
R

d/ac
r/c
Prey
Isocline
Prey increase
Prey decrease
Number of prey depends on the predator population.
Changing the number of prey can
cause 2 types of responses:

Functional response relationship
between an individual predators food
consumption and the density of prey

Numeric response change in the
population of predators in response to
prey availability
Lotka-Volterra: prey are consumed in
direct proportion to their availability
(cRP term)
known as Type I functional response
predators never satiate!
no limit on the growth rate of predators!

Type II functional response
consumption rate increases at first, but
eventually predators satiate (upper limit
on consumption rate)
Type III functional response
consumption rate is low at low prey
densities, increases, and then reaches
an upper limit
Why type III functional response?
at low densities, prey may be able to hide,
but at higher densities hiding spaces fill up
predators may be more efficient at
capturing more common prey
predators may switch prey species as they
become more/less abundant
Numeric response comes from
Population growth
(though most predator populations grow
slowly)
Immigration
predator populations may be attracted to
prey outbreaks
Predator-prey cycles can be unstable
efficient predators can drive prey to
extinction
if the population moves away from the
equilibrium, there is no force pulling the
populations back to equilibrium
eventually random oscillations will drive
one or both species to extinction
Factors promoting stability in
predator-prey relationships
1. Inefficient predators (prey escaping)
less efficient predators (lower c) allow
more prey to survive
more living prey support more predators
2. Outside factors limit populations
higher d for predators
lower r for prey

3. Alternative food sources for the
predator
less pressure on prey populations
4. Refuges from predation at low prey
densities
prevents prey populations from falling too
low
5. Rapid numeric response of predators
to changes in prey population

Huffakers experiment on predator-prey
coexistence
2 mite species, predator and prey
Initial experiments predators drove
prey extinct then went extinct
themselves

Adding barriers to dispersal allowed
predators and prey to coexist.
Refuges from predation allow predator and
prey to coexist.
Density of prey population
Per capita
population
growth rate
K
r
o
Population growth curve for
logistic population growth
Prey population outbreaks
cRP rR
dt
dR
Density of prey population
Per capita
death rate
K
Type III functional response
curve for predators
) (predation
dt
dR
rR
Multiple stable states are possible.
Below A birth rate > death rate; population
increases
A
Point A stable equilibrium; population
increases below A and decreases above A
A
Between A & B predators reduce population
back to A
A B
Unstable equilibrium equilibrium point
from which a population will move to a
new, different equilibrium if disturbed
Point B unstable equilibrium; below B,
predation reduces population to A; above B,
predators are less efficient, so population
grows to C
B
Between B & C predators are less efficient,
prey increase up to C
B
Point C stable equilibrium
B
Predator-prey systems can have
multiple stable states
Reducing the number of predators can
lead to an outbreak of prey

Growth rate
Death rate