1

EEE 498/598
Overview of Electrical Engineering
Lecture 7: Magnetostatics: Amperes Law
Of Force; Magnetic Flux Density; Lorentz
Force; Biot-savart Law; Applications Of
Amperes Law In Integral Form; Vector
Magnetic Potential; Magnetic Dipole;
Magnetic Flux


Lecture 7
2
Lecture 7 Objectives
To begin our study of magnetostatics with
Amperes law of force; magnetic flux
density; Lorentz force; Biot-Savart law;
applications of Amperes law in integral
form; vector magnetic potential; magnetic
dipole; and magnetic flux.
Lecture 7
3
Overview of Electromagnetics
Maxwells
equations
Fundamental laws of
classical electromagnetics
Special
cases
Electro-
statics
Magneto-
statics
Electro-
magnetic
waves
Kirchoffs
Laws
Statics:
0
c
c
t
<< d
Geometric
Optics
Transmission
Line
Theory
Circuit
Theory
Input from
other
disciplines
Lecture 7
4
Magnetostatics
Magnetostatics is the branch of electromagnetics
dealing with the effects of electric charges in steady
motion (i.e, steady current or DC).
The fundamental law of magnetostatics is
Amperes law of force.
Amperes law of force is analogous to Coulombs
law in electrostatics.
Lecture 7
5
Magnetostatics (Contd)
In magnetostatics, the magnetic field is
produced by steady currents. The
magnetostatic field does not allow for
inductive coupling between circuits
coupling between electric and magnetic fields
Lecture 7
6
Amperes Law of Force
Amperes law of force is the law of action
between current carrying circuits.
Amperes law of force gives the magnetic force
between two current carrying circuits in an
otherwise empty universe.
Amperes law of force involves complete circuits
since current must flow in closed loops.
Lecture 7
7
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
Experimental facts:
Two parallel wires
carrying current in the
same direction attract.
Two parallel wires
carrying current in the
opposite directions
repel.

I
1
I
2

F
12
F
21

-
I
1
I
2

F
12

F
21

Lecture 7
8
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
Experimental facts:
A short current-
carrying wire oriented
perpendicular to a
long current-carrying
wire experiences no
force.

I
1

F
12
= 0
I
2

Lecture 7
9
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
Experimental facts:
The magnitude of the force is inversely
proportional to the distance squared.
The magnitude of the force is proportional to
the product of the currents carried by the two
wires.
Lecture 7
10
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
The direction of the force established by the
experimental facts can be mathematically
represented by
( )
12 12

1 2 R F
a a a a =
unit vector in
direction of force on
I
2
due to I
1

unit vector in direction
of I
2
from I
1

unit vector in direction
of current I
1

unit vector in direction
of current I
2

Lecture 7
11
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
The force acting on a current element I
2
dl
2
by a
current element I
1
dl
1
is given by
( )
2
12
1 1 2 2
0
12
12

4 R
a l d I l d I
F
R

=
t

Permeability of free space

0
= 4t 10
-7
F/m
Lecture 7
12
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
The total force acting on a circuit C
2
having a
current I
2
by a circuit C
1
having current I
1
is
given by
( )
} }

=
2 1
12
2
12
1 2
2 1 0
12

4
C C
R
R
a l d l d
I I
F
t

Lecture 7
13
Amperes Law of Force (Contd)
The force on C
1
due to C
2
is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the
force on C
2
due to C
1
.
12 21
F F =
Lecture 7
14
Magnetic Flux Density
Amperes force law describes an action at a
distance analogous to Coulombs law.
In Coulombs law, it was useful to introduce the
concept of an electric field to describe the
interaction between the charges.
In Amperes law, we can define an appropriate
field that may be regarded as the means by
which currents exert force on each other.
Lecture 7
15
Magnetic Flux Density (Contd)
The magnetic flux density can be introduced
by writing
( )
}
} }
=

=
2
2 1
12
12 2 2
2
12
1 1
0
2 2 12

4
C
C C
R
B l d I
R
a l d I
l d I F
t

Lecture 7
16
Magnetic Flux Density (Contd)
where
}

=
1
12
2
12
1 1
0
12

4
C
R
R
a l d I
B
t

the magnetic flux density at the location of

dl
2
due to the current I
1
in C
1

Lecture 7
17
Magnetic Flux Density (Contd)
Suppose that an infinitesimal current element Idl
is immersed in a region of magnetic flux density
B. The current element experiences a force dF
given by
B l Id F d =
Lecture 7
18
Magnetic Flux Density (Contd)
The total force exerted on a circuit C carrying
current I that is immersed in a magnetic flux
density B is given by
}
=
C
B l d I F
Lecture 7
19
Force on a Moving Charge
A moving point charge placed in a magnetic
field experiences a force given by
B
v
Q
The force experienced
by the point charge is
in the direction into the
paper.
B v Q F
m
=
v Q l Id
Lecture 7
20
Lorentz Force
If a point charge is moving in a region where both
electric and magnetic fields exist, then it experiences
a total force given by



The Lorentz force equation is useful for
determining the equation of motion for electrons in
electromagnetic deflection systems such as CRTs.
( ) B v E q F F F
m e
+ = + =
Lecture 7
21
The Biot-Savart Law
The Biot-Savart law gives us the B-field
arising at a specified point P from a given
current distribution.
It is a fundamental law of magnetostatics.
Lecture 7
22
The Biot-Savart Law (Contd)
The contribution to the B-field at a point P
from a differential current element Idl is given
by
3
0
4
) (
R
R l d I
r B d

'
=
t

Lecture 7
23
The Biot-Savart Law (Contd)
l Id
'
P
R
r
'
r
Lecture 7
24
The Biot-Savart Law (Contd)
The total magnetic flux at the point P due to the
entire circuit C is given by
}

'
=
C
R
R l d I
r B
3
0
4
) (
t

Lecture 7
25
Types of Current Distributions
Line current density (current) - occurs for
infinitesimally thin filamentary bodies (i.e.,
wires of negligible diameter).
Surface current density (current per unit
width) - occurs when body is perfectly
conducting.
Volume current density (current per unit
cross sectional area) - most general.

Lecture 7
26
The Biot-Savart Law (Contd)
For a surface distribution of current, the B-S law
becomes



For a volume distribution of current, the B-S law
becomes
( )
}
'
'

'
=
S
s
s d
R
R r J
r B
3
0
4
) (
t

( )
}
'
'

'
=
V
v d
R
R r J
r B
3
0
4
) (
t

Lecture 7
27
Amperes Circuital Law in
Integral Form
Amperes Circuital Law in integral form
states that the circulation of the magnetic
flux density in free space is proportional to
the total current through the surface
bounding the path over which the circulation
is computed.
encl
C
I l d B
0
=
}
Lecture 7
28
Amperes Circuital Law in
Integral Form (Contd)
By convention, dS is
taken to be in the
direction defined by the
right-hand rule applied
to dl.
}
=
S
encl
s d J I
Since volume current
density is the most
general, we can write
I
encl
in this way.
S
dl
dS
Lecture 7
29
Amperes Law and Gausss Law
Just as Gausss law follows from Coulombs law,
so Amperes circuital law follows from Amperes
force law.
Just as Gausss law can be used to derive the
electrostatic field from symmetric charge
distributions, so Amperes law can be used to
derive the magnetostatic field from symmetric
current distributions.
Lecture 7
30
Applications of Amperes Law
Amperes law in integral form is an integral
equation for the unknown magnetic flux density
resulting from a given current distribution.
encl
C
I l d B
0
=
}
known
unknown
Lecture 7
31
Applications of Amperes Law
(Contd)
In general, solutions to integral equations
must be obtained using numerical
techniques.
However, for certain symmetric current
distributions closed form solutions to
Amperes law can be obtained.
Lecture 7
32
Applications of Amperes Law
(Contd)
Closed form solution to Amperes law
relies on our ability to construct a suitable
family of Amperian paths.
An Amperian path is a closed contour to
which the magnetic flux density is
tangential and over which equal to a
constant value.
Lecture 7
33
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite
Line Current Using Amperes Law
Consider an infinite line current along the z-axis
carrying current in the +z-direction:
I
Lecture 7
34
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Amperes Law (Contd)
(1) Assume from symmetry and the right-hand rule
the form of the field


(2) Construct a family of Amperian paths
( )
| |
B a B

=
circles of radius where
Lecture 7
35
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Amperes Law (Contd)
(3) Evaluate the total current passing through the
surface bounded by the Amperian path

}
=
S
encl
s d J I
Lecture 7
36
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Amperes Law (Contd)
Amperian path
I I
encl
=
I

x
y
Lecture 7
37
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Amperes Law (Contd)
(4) For each Amperian path, evaluate the integral

Bl l d B
C
=
}
( ) t
|
2 B l d B
C
=
}
magnitude of B
on Amperian
path.
length
of Amperian
path.
Lecture 7
38
Magnetic Flux Density of an Infinite Line
Current Using Amperes Law (Contd)
(5) Solve for B on each Amperian path

l
I
B
encl 0

=
t

|
2

0
I
a B =
Lecture 7
39
Applying Stokess Theorem to
Amperes Law
}
} }
= =
V =
S
encl
S C
s d J I
s d B l d B
0 0

Because the above must hold for any
surface S, we must have
J B
0
= V
Differential form
of Amperes Law
Lecture 7
40
Amperes Law in Differential
Form
Amperes law in differential form implies
that the B-field is conservative outside of
regions where current is flowing.
Lecture 7
41
Fundamental Postulates of
Magnetostatics
Amperes law in differential form


No isolated magnetic charges
J B
0
= V
0 = V B
B is solenoidal
Lecture 7
42
Vector Magnetic Potential
Vector identity: the divergence of the curl of
any vector field is identically zero.


Corollary: If the divergence of a vector field is
identically zero, then that vector field can be
written as the curl of some vector potential
field.
( ) 0 = V V A
Lecture 7
43
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
Since the magnetic flux density is
solenoidal, it can be written as the curl of
a vector field called the vector magnetic
potential.
A B B V = = V 0
Lecture 7
44
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
The general form of the B-S law is



Note that
( )
}
'
'

'
=
V
v d
R
R r J
r B
3
0
4
) (
t

3
1
R
R
R
=
|
.
|

\
|
V
Lecture 7
45
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
Furthermore, note that the del operator operates
only on the unprimed coordinates so that
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
.
|

\
|
'
V =
'

|
.
|

\
|
V =
|
.
|

\
|
V
'
=

'
R
r J
r J
R
R
r J
R
R r J
1
1
3
Lecture 7
46
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
Hence, we have
( )
( )
v d
R
r J
r B
V
'
'
V =
}
'
t

4
0
( ) r A
Lecture 7
47
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
For a surface distribution of current, the vector
magnetic potential is given by



For a line current, the vector magnetic potential is
given by

( )
s d
R
r J
r A
S
s
'
'
=
}
'
t

4
) (
0
}
'
'
=
L
R
l d I
r A
t

4
) (
0
Lecture 7
48
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
In some cases, it is easier to evaluate the
vector magnetic potential and then use
B = V A, rather than to use the B-S law
to directly find B.
In some ways, the vector magnetic
potential A is analogous to the scalar
electric potential V.
Lecture 7
49
Vector Magnetic Potential
(Contd)
In classical physics, the vector magnetic
potential is viewed as an auxiliary function
with no physical meaning.
However, there are phenomena in
quantum mechanics that suggest that the
vector magnetic potential is a real (i.e.,
measurable) field.
Lecture 7
50
Magnetic Dipole
A magnetic dipole comprises a small current
carrying loop.
The point charge (charge monopole) is the
simplest source of electrostatic field. The
magnetic dipole is the simplest source of
magnetostatic field. There is no such thing as
a magnetic monopole (at least as far as
classical physics is concerned).
Lecture 7
51
Magnetic Dipole (Contd)
The magnetic dipole is analogous to the
electric dipole.
Just as the electric dipole is useful in
helping us to understand the behavior of
dielectric materials, so the magnetic dipole
is useful in helping us to understand the
behavior of magnetic materials.
Lecture 7
52
Magnetic Dipole (Contd)
Consider a small circular loop of radius b
carrying a steady current I. Assume that the wire
radius has a negligible cross-section.
x
y
b
Lecture 7
53
Magnetic Dipole (Contd)
The vector magnetic potential is evaluated
for R >> b as
| |
( )
| |
u
t
t
u t
| |
t

|
| | u
| |
t

|
t

|
t
t
|
sin
4

sin
cos

sin

4
cos sin 1
cos

sin

4
) (
2
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
r
b I
a
r
b
a a
Ib
d
r
b
r
a a
Ib
R
bd a
I
r A
y x
y x
=
+ =
'
(

'

+
'
+
'
~
'
=
}
}
Lecture 7
54
Magnetic Dipole (Contd)
The magnetic flux density is evaluated for
R >> b as
( )( ) u u t
t

u
sin

cos 2

4
2
3
0
a a b I
r
A B
r
+ = V =
Lecture 7
55
Magnetic Dipole (Contd)
Recall electric dipole



The electric field due to the electric charge
dipole and the magnetic field due to the
magnetic dipole are dual quantities.
( ) u u
tc
u
sin

cos 2

4
3
0
a a
r
p
E
r
+ =
Qd p = = moment dipole electric
Lecture 7
56
Magnetic Dipole Moment
The magnetic dipole moment can be defined
as
2

b I a m
z
t =
Direction of the dipole moment
is determined by the direction
of current using the right-hand
rule.
Magnitude of
the dipole
moment is the
product of the
current and
the area of the
loop.
Lecture 7
57
Magnetic Dipole Moment
(Contd)
We can write the vector magnetic potential in
terms of the magnetic dipole moment as



We can write the B field in terms of the
magnetic dipole moment as

2
0
2
0
4

4
sin

r
a m
r
m
a A
r
t

t
u
|

= =
( )
(

|
.
|

\
|
V V = + =
r
m a a m
r
B
r
1
4
sin

cos 2

4
0
3
0
t

u u
t

u
Lecture 7
58
Divergence of B-Field
The B-field is solenoidal, i.e. the
divergence of the B-field is identically equal
to zero:

Physically, this means that magnetic
charges (monopoles) do not exist.
A magnetic charge can be viewed as an
isolated magnetic pole.
0 V B
Lecture 7
59
Divergence of B-Field (Contd)
N
S
N
S
N
S
No matter how small
the magnetic is
divided, it always has
a north pole and a
south pole.
The elementary
source of magnetic
field is a magnetic
dipole.
I
N
S
Lecture 7
60
Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux
crossing an open
surface S is given by
}
= +
S
s d B
S
B
C
Wb/m
2

Wb
Lecture 7
61
Magnetic Flux (Contd)
From the divergence theorem, we have



Hence, the net magnetic flux leaving any
closed surface is zero. This is another
manifestation of the fact that there are no
magnetic charges.
0 0 0 = = V = V
} }
S V
s d B dv B B
Lecture 7
62
Magnetic Flux and Vector
Magnetic Potential
The magnetic flux across an open surface
may be evaluated in terms of the vector
magnetic potential using Stokess theorem:
}
} }
=
V = = +
C
S S
l d A
s d A s d B