2 The

language of
chemistry
 2.1 Measurement
• Measurements
– always have a unit
– always an associated uncertainty

• Unit
– specific standard quantity of a particular
property
– used to measure all other quantities of
specific property
 2.1 Measurement
• The seven SI base units
Measurement Unit Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela Cd
 2.1 Measurement
• The SI units for ANY physical quantity can
be built from the seven base units
– For example
• area = length × width
• length and width are measured in metres
• the unit of area is square metre, m2

• Units undergo the same kinds of

mathematical operations as the numbers
to which they are attached
 2.1 Measurement
• SI or derived units are sometimes
inconvenient

• Use prefixes that divide or multiply the

unit by a particular power of ten
Prefix Symbol Factor
kilo k 103
decid 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
 2.1 Measurement
• Uncertainties and significant figures
– Every measurement has an associated
uncertainty

24.3 ºC 24.32 ºC
297.45 K 297.47 K
 2.1 Measurement
• Uncertainties and significant figures
– All figures up to and including the first
estimated figure are recorded
– These figures are called significant figures

24.3 ºC 24.32 ºC
297.45 K 297.47 K
 2.1 Measurement
• Uncertainties and significant figures
– Scientific notation expresses numbers in
terms of powers of ten
• 24.3 ºC is 2.43 × 101 ºC
• 24.32 ºC is 2.432 × 101 ºC

24.3 ºC 24.32 ºC
297.45 K 297.47 K
 2.1 Measurement
• Significant figures in calculations
– Multiplication or division of
measurements
3.14× 2.751
= 13
0.64
– Addition or subtraction of measurements
3.247
41.36
+ 125.2
169.8
 2.1 Measurement
• Precision
– Signifies how reproducible a
measurement is when made a number of
times
 2.1 Measurement
• Accuracy
– refers to how close the value is to the
correct value
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Chemical formulae
– Shows the relative number of each type of
atom present in a substance
• H2O
• C30 H34 AuBClF3N6O2P2PtW

– A molecular formula is a chemical formula

that refers to a discrete molecule
– There is a standardised way of writing
chemical formulae
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Binary compounds
– Element further to the left of the periodic table appears
first
• KCl, Al2S3
– Hydrogen is the exception to this rule
• LiH, NH3, H2O2, HCl
– If both elements are from the same group the lowest
element appears first
• SiC, BrF3
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Binary compounds
– In ionic compounds the cation is written
first followed by the anion
• NaBr, MgCl2

Note: a subscripted number refers

ONLY to the atom immediately
preceding it.
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Writing chemical formulae for
compounds containing more than two
elements requires some knowledge of
the bonding within the compound.
– Ionic compounds
– Covalent compounds
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Ionic compounds
– Cation followed by anion
– Total charge zero
Ca(NO3)2(s)  Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

– Hydrate formation common among ionic

compounds
Ca(NO3)2.4H2O
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Covalent compounds
– Majority are carbon-based organic
compounds
– Chemical formula often written carbon first,
followed by hydrogen and then the
remaining elements in alphabetical order,
e.g. C2H6O, C4H9BrO

– Limited structural information in the chemical

formula
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Structural formulae
– Attempt to show the way in which the atoms
in the molecule are bonded together
– Chemical symbols still used for each
element present
– Constituent atoms are placed in the order in
which they are bonded together
– Bonds between neighbouring atoms are
represented as lines
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Structural formulae
– NH3
H H H N H H N H
N
H H
H

– Structural formulae do not necessarily show the

correct geometry of a compound
– Presence of lone pairs of electrons is often
neglected in depictions of molecules
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Organic chemistry
– Structural formulae are particularly useful
– Carbon atoms bond to themselves —
catenation
– Carbon is a tetravalent element — it
prefers to form a total of 4 bonds within
a molecule
– These bonds may be single, double or
triple
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Structural formulae
H H H H
H C C H C C H C C H
H H H H
C2H6 C2H4 C2H2
ethane ethene ethyne
C C C C C C
single bond double bond triple bond
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Structural formulae can remove ambiguities
inherent in the chemical formula

H H H H
H C C O H H C O C H
H H H H
• Isomers areCmolecules
2H6O
with the sameCchemical
2H6O
formula butethanol dimethyl ether
different structural formula
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Two types of shorthand structural
formulae
– condensed structural formulae
– line structures

• Condensed structural formulae

– Constituent atoms are arranged in bonded
groups, actual bonds not drawn
• dimethyl ether CH3OCH3
• ethanol CH3CH2OH
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Line structures
– Are constructed according to the following
guidelines:
1. All bonds except C-H bonds are shown as lines.
2. C-H bonds and H atoms attached to carbon are not
shown in the line structure.
3. Single bonds are shown as 1 line; double bonds are
shown as 2 lines; triple bonds are shown as 3 lines.
4. Carbon atoms are not labelled. All other atoms are
labelled with their elemental symbols.
2.2 Representations of
molecules
– Drawing line structures

H C H H

H3C C O C H

H C H H

H
2.2 Representations of
molecules
– Drawing line structures
C
H
C C O C
H C H H
C
H3C C O C H

H C H H

H
2.2 Representations of
molecules
– Drawing line structures
C
H
C C O C
H C H H
C
H3C C O C H

H C H H
O
H
2.2 Representations of
molecules
– Drawing line structures
C
H
C C O C
H C H H
C
H3C C O C H
CH3
H C H H
H3C O CH3
H
CH3
2.2 Representations of
molecules
– Drawing line structures
C
H
C C O C
H C H H
C
H3C C O C H
Me
H C H H
Me O Me
H
Me
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Three-dimensional structures
– To draw a three-dimensional structure
add perspective to a structural formula or
line structure

H H
H H H H
H H H CH3H H
H H H H
CH3 CH3 H CH3
cis isomer trans isomer
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Three-dimensional structural formulae
X L
L L
M
X L L
X X L
Tetrahedral Octahedral
Conventional way Transition metal ion
to draw 4 bonds complex
around a single
ML6
carbon atom
2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Three-dimensional structural formulae
X L
L L
X L L
X X L
Tetrahedral Octahedral
Conventional way Transition metal ion
to draw 4 bonds complex
around a single
ML6
carbon atom
 2.2 Representations of
molecules
• Three-dimensional structures
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Nomenclature — the system for naming
of compounds
• International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC)
• Some compounds are better known by
their common unsystematic name rather
than their systematic IUPAC name
– The systematic name of water is oxidane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Naming Inorganic compounds
• Nonmetallic binary compounds
– Guidelines for naming:

NO NO2 N2O5
Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen pentoxide

1. The element closer to the left of the

periodic table appears first.
If both elements are from the same
group of the periodic table, the lower
one appears first.
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Naming Inorganic compounds
• Nonmetallic binary compounds
– Guidelines for naming:

NO NO2 N2O5
Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen pentoxide

2. The element that appears first retains

its elemental name.
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Naming Inorganic compounds
• Nonmetallic binary compounds
– Guidelines for naming:

NO NO2 N2O5
Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen pentoxide
3. The second element begins with a
root derived from its elemental name
and ends with the suffix –ide.
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Naming Inorganic compounds
• Nonmetallic binary compounds
– Guidelines for naming:

NO NO2 N2O5
Nitrogen monoxide Nitrogen dioxide Dinitrogen pentoxide
4. When there is more than one atom of
a given element in the formula, the
name of the element usually contains
a prefix that specifies the number of
atoms present.
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Binary compounds of hydrogen
– Hydrogen requires special consideration
– It may appear first or second in the
chemical formula of a compound,
therefore first or second in the name
• Lithium hydride LiH
• Hydrogen fluoride HF
• Hydrogen sulfide H2S
• Calcium hydride CaH2
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Ionic compounds
– Binary ionic compounds are written with the
cation first and the anion, which takes the suffix –
ide, last
• Potassium iodide KI
• Calcium fluoride CaF2

– Ionic compounds may contain polyatomic ions

• Ammonium NH4+
• Nitrate NO3-
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Ionic compounds
– Anions containing a central atom
surrounded by oxygen atoms are known
as oxoanions. Naming rules:
1. The name has a root taken from the
name of the central atom
• Carbonate CO32-
• Nitrite NO2-
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Ionic compounds
– Anions containing a central atom
surrounded by oxygen atoms are known
as oxoanions. Naming rules:
2. When an element forms 2 different
oxoanions, the one with fewer oxygen
atoms ends in –ite, and the other
ends in –ate
• Sulfite SO32-
• Sulfate SO42-
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Ionic compounds
– Anions containing a central atom
surrounded by oxygen atoms are known
as oxoanions. Naming rules:
3. Chlorine, bromine and iodine each
form 4 different oxoanions that are
distinguished by prefixes and suffixes
• Hypobromite BrO-
• Bromite BrO2-
• Bromate BrO3-
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Ionic compounds
– Anions containing a central atom
surrounded by oxygen atoms are known
as oxoanions. Naming rules:
4. A polyatomic anion with a charge more
negative than 1- may add H+ to give another
anion. These anions are named from the
parent anion by adding the word hydrogen
• Hydrogen carbonate HCO3-
• Hydrogen phosphate H2PO4-
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Organic compounds
– Composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen
atoms
– Naming system based on the number of carbon
atoms in a particular molecule
– Functional groups
• A group of one or more atoms within a molecule
bonded in a particular fashion
• Usually the point of reaction within a molecule
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Organic compounds
– Named according to their functional
groups
Functional Name of Found group
group in
hydroxyl
R OHalcohols
O
carbonyl
C aldehydes
R H
O
carbonyl
C ketones
R R
O
carboxyl
C carboxylic acids
R OH
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Alkanes
– Molecules that contain only carbon and
hydrogen
– Carbon atoms are joined by single bond
only
– 2 parts to the name of an alkane
• Prefix: indicating the number of carbon atoms
in the longest chain
• Ending: -ane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
1. The name of an alkane with an
unbranched chain of carbon atoms
consists of a prefix showing the number of
carbon atoms in the chain and the ending
-ane

CH3CH2CH2CH3

butane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
2. For the branched-chain alkanes, the
longest chain of carbon atoms is the
parent chain, and its name becomes the
root name

CH3
CH3CH2CH2CHCH3
5 4 3 2 1

2-methylpentane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
3. For an alkane with 1 substituent, number
the parent chain so that the carbon atom
bearing the substituent is given the lowest
possible number

CH3
CH3CH2CH2CHCH3
5 4 3 2 1

2-methylpentane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
4. Give the substituent on the parent chain a
name and number. The number shows the
carbon atom of the parent chain to which
the substituent is bonded. Use a hyphen
to connect the number to the name

CH3
CH3CHCH3 1 2 3

2-methylpropane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
5. If there are two or more identical
substituents, number the parent chain
from the end that gives the lower number
to the substituent closest to the end of the
chain

CH3 CH3
CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH3
6 5 4 3 2 1

2,4-dimethylhexane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
6. If there are two or more different
substituents, list them in alphabetical
order, and number the chain from the end
that gives the lower number to the
substituent encountered first
CH3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

CH3CH2CHCH2CHCH2CH3
CH2CH3
3-ethyl-5-methylheptane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• IUPAC rules for naming alkanes:
7. The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc. and the
hyphenated prefixes sec- and tert- are
disregarded for the purposes of placing
the substituents in alphabetical order

CH3 CH2CH3
CH3CCH2CHCH2CH3
CH3 1 2 3 4 5 6

4-ethyl-2,2-dimethylhexane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• Constitutional isomerism in alkanes
– Compounds with the same chemical
formula but a different order of
attachment of the constituent atoms
– Usually distinguishable by their differing
physical properties

pentane 2-methylbutane

2,2-dimethylpropane
 2.3 Nomenclature
• General organic nomenclature
• The name of any compound with a chain of
carbon atoms consists of 3 parts.
1. A prefix: shows the number of carbon
atoms in the parent chain
2. An infix: shows the nature of the carbon-
carbon bonds in the parent chain
3. A suffix: shows the class of compound to
which the substance belongs, and
therefore the functional group(s) present
in the compound
 2.3 Nomenclature
• General organic nomenclature
O
H3CHC CH2 CH3CH2CH2CH2COH

a carbon-carbon only carbon-carbon

double bond single bonds

propene pentanoic acid

a –COOH
3 carbon a 5 carbon
(carboxyl)
atoms hydrocarbon atoms
group