The control and regulation of industrial processes and
systems require accurate sensing and measurement. Initially all controls and sensors were mechanical. The development of electrical transducers has created a new field of electrical and electronic sensors. A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another.
Mechanical sensors were developed over time and are economical and reliable. The most common form of a mechanical sensor is the limit switch as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Limit Switch The limitations of mechanical sensors include the following:
Slow operating speed (when compared to the speed of electricity), requirement for physical contact with the material or item being sensed, and limited operating life. These limitations have generated a need for other types of sensors.
ELECTRICAL SENSORS, WHICH HAVE AN ADVANTAGE OVER MECHANICAL SENSORS, INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:
Higher operating speed Proximity sensing (sensing without physical contact). Long life (they have no moving parts) Reduced maintenance Smaller size Shock resistant.
High cost and inability to directly control electrical devices. This lack of power handling capability adds to the cost and complexity of a system, as it is often necessary to install a relay or amplifier to increase the power handling capability of the sensor.
DESCRIBE SELECTION OF SENSOR In selecting a sensor for a particular problem, various physical and technical factors are considered in order to find the most suitable sensor for the problem. Below is a list of evaluation criteria that weight differently in accordance with the task in hand. 1. Number of switching cycles per unit time 2. Dependence on particular materials 3. Range 4. Repeating precision 5. Speed of motion of the object to be sensed 6. Sensitive to external light (with optical sensor) 7. Reflections (with optical sensors) 8. Sensitivity to humidity 9. Sensitive to contamination 10. Sensitive to vibration 11. Temperature range 12. Compatibility with control and controlled system 13. Type of energy for sensor 14. Type of energy for control 15. Energy level 16. Constancy of energy 17. Maintenance-repair facilities 18. Service life 19. Costs of signal processing 20. Costs of signal conversion 21. Suppliers available 22. Costs of sensor 23. Cost of sensor interface 24. Type of output signal (digital, binary, analogue) Piezoelectric VARIOUS TYPES OF SENSOR APPLICATION IN THE INDUSTRIES
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF LIMIT SWITCHES A mechanically operated switch is one that is controlled automatically by factors such as pressure, position, and temperature. Limit switches are designed to operate only when a predetermined limit is reached, and they are usually actuated by contact with an object such as a cam. These devices take the place of human operators. They are often used in the control circuits of machine processes to govern the starting, stopping, or reversal of motors. A limit switch is a snap-acting switch housed in a small enclosure In a snap-acting switch, as in a toggle switch, the actual switching of the circuit takes place at a fixed speed no matter how quickly or slowly the activating mechanism moves. The small size and variety of operating levers make these switches very useful as limit switches. They can operate with very small pressures on the operating levers, which allows a great deal of sensitivity.
Many machine tool operations require a repeated forward and reverse action in their operation. Figure 2.3 illustrates a reciprocating motion machine process that uses two limit switches to provide automatic control of the motor. Each limit switch (LS1 and LS2) has two sets of contact, one normally open and the other normally closed.
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF PROXIMITY SENSOR Proximity sensors or switches are pilot devices that detect the presence of an object (usually called the target) without physical contact. They are solid-state electronic devices that are completely encapsulated to protect against excessive vibration, liquids, chemicals and corrosive agents found in the industrial environment. Proximity sensors are used when:
Hostile environments demand improved sealing properties, preventing proper operation of mechanical switches. Long life and reliable service are required. A fast electronic control system requires a bounce-free input signal. The object being detected is too small, too lightweight, or too soft to operate a mechanical switch. Rapid response and high switching rates are required, as in counting or ejection control applications. An object has to be sensed through non- metallic barriers such as glass, plastic, and paper cartons. DESCRIBE INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS An inductive proximity sensor is a sensing device that is actuated by a metal object as shown in Figure 3.1 below.
A typical inductive sensor is shown in block diagram form in Figure 3.2 in the following page. The sensor consists of two parts: The detection coil and support circuitry. Figure 3.2: Inductive Sensor Block Diagram The support circuitry uses external power to run an oscillator circuit inside the sensor. The oscillator produces a high frequency sinusoidal voltage, which is applied to the detection coil. The detection coil, which is placed directly behind the sensor face, produces an oscillating sensing field as illustrated in Figure 3.3. Note that the field is actually three dimensional and not two dimensional as shown.
When a metal target enters the sensing field, eddy currents are induced in the target. These eddy currents cause a loss of power in the oscillator circuit, which results in a reduced oscillator voltage. A detection circuit contained within the support circuitry senses the oscillator's reduced voltage and switches the output. The inductive proximity sensor contains no mechanical relay contacts. It is a single integrated circuit. This integrated circuit contains all the components necessary for the operation of the sensor. Integrated circuits are capable of withstanding high shock loads and vibration. This results in the sensor having a low failure rate and a long life expectancy.
The output in the sensor provided in your experiment is a DC type with a NPN normally open (NO) output. This circuit arrangement is illustrated in figure 3.4. When a significant amount of metal is present within the sensing range of the sensor, the transistor is turned on. The sensor's output is connected to ground through the transistor. To turn on the output indicator, the transistor closes the circuit between the indicator and ground. This type of circuit operation is known as "current sinking. When a device is connected between the source and the transistor, the transistor sinks" the current to ground. Often this type of sensor is connected to a programmable controller or other logic device. This type of output produces a logic one or "true" when there is no metal present. If the programmable controller requires a logic zero or "false" you would need to use a sensor with an NPN normally closed (NC) output or a PNP NO output.
Proximity Detection - The sensing distance of an inductive proximity sensor depends on various factors. Included among these factors are: target size and target material. All of these factors are inter-related. Table 2 below summarizes these parameters.
Describe Circuit Wiring For An Inductive Proximity Sensor Inductive proximity sensors used as switches arc wired into a control circuit in a manner similar to limit switches. As illustrated in Figure 3.5, this inductive proximity sensor requires DC power supplied to the black and red terminals. The positive is connected to the red terminal and the negative is connected to the black terminal. A low current relay must be used to interface the sensor if it is necessary to control a high current device or a device that is designed to operate from a voltage other than 24 VDC. The output from the sensor is taken from the white and black or white and red terminals depending on whether the sensor has current sourcing or current sinking respectively.
The inductive proximity sensor that you will be using requires 10 to 30 VDC for proper operation. The output is a normally open (NO) NPN configuration that is capable of sinking a maximum of 200 mA of current. This requires you to connect a load between the red and white terminals on the sensor. You cannot operate this device as a current source. The circuitry is not capable of supplying current to a load. The resistance of the load must be sufficient to limit the current flow to 200 mA or less through the sensor. To control a larger load it is necessary to interface through an appropriate relay (illustrated in Figure 3.5).
When the sensor detects the presence of metal the output transistor is energized sinking current through the relay coil. The relay energizes and the indicator light is on. When the metal is removed, the transistor is turned off. The relay opens and the light go dark.
SHIELDED INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS The ferrite core concentrates the radiated field in the direction of use. A metal ring is placed around the core to restrict the laterial radiation of the field. Shielded proximity sensors as shown in Figure 3.6 can be flush mounted in metal, but a metal-free space is recommended above and around the sensing surface.
An unshielded proximity sensor does not have a metal ring around the core to restrict lateral radiation of the field. Unshielded sensors as shown in Figure 3.7 cannot be flush mounted in metal. There must be an area around the sensing surface that is metal free.
Since inductive proximity switches are of the non-contact type, care must be taken when mounting to prevent false triggering. Always consult the manufacturer's data sheet for mounting constraints before attempting to install. Figure 3.8 illustrates the minimum clearance values required when mounting in a metal panel.
If the application indicates that the sensor must be flush mounted, many manufacturers have shielded switches available (at a slightly higher cost) that can be mounted flush with the panel. Figure 3.9 shows the minimum required distance within the mounting of the inductive proximity sensors in adjacent position and the opposite position.
DESCRIBE CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS A capacitive proximity sensor is a sensing device that is actuated by conductive and non-conductive materials. The operation of capacitive sensors is also based on the principle of an oscillator. Instead of a coil, however, the active face of a capacitive sensor is formed by two metallic electrodes rather like an opened capacitor. See Figure 3.11. The electrodes are placed in the feedback loop of a high-frequency oscillator that is inactive with no target present. As the target approaches the face of the sensor, it enters the electrostatic field that is formed by the electrodes. This causes an increase in the coupling capacitance, and the circuit begins to oscillate.
DC proximity sensors can be either current sourcing or current sinking devices. Current sourcing sensors use a PNP transistor to switch load current and current sinking type sensors use a NPN transistor. The type of transistor used is an important factor in determining the compatibility of the sensor with control system inputs. The following drawing shown in Figure 3.13 shows the output stage of a current sourcing type sensor.
In a current sinking sensor, an NPN transistor is used. When the NPN transistor switches on, conventional current flows through the load to the transistor. This is referred to as current sinking since the direction of conventional current is into the sensor. The output in the sensor provided in your experiment is DC type with an NPN NO output. The circuit arrangement is shown in Figure 3.14.
A minimum clearance distance must be provided when mounting a capacitive proximity switch in a panel or above any surface. This is to prevent the material of the panel or bracket from being sensed and affecting the sensor's operation. If the application requires flush mounting, many manufacturers produce a shielded sensor (at a slightly higher cost) that can be mounted flush. Figure 3.17 illustrates the minimum clearance distances required to ensure the proper operation of the capacitive sensor Figure 3.18 illustrates the minimum mounting dimensions required to prevent mutual interference between two or more sensors when they are to be mounted close to each other. When sensors are too close to each other, the sensing field of one sensor can interfere with another. This will cause erratic operation of one or more of the proximity sensors. Always consult the manufacturer's data sheets before installing these sensors. When mounting both inductive sensors, make sure the sensing field of the other sensor does not interfere with another.
DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND PROPERTIES OF PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS A photoelectric sensor includes the following elements: an emitter (light source), a receiver to detect the emitted light, and associated electronics that evaluate and amplify the detected signal causing the sensors output to change the state (high to low or low to high).
The photoelectric switch is constructed with a window in the casing. Also, a transistor can be coupled with the photoelectric diode to amplify the signal to a level that is compatible with machine control circuits. This combination is called a PHOTO TRANSISTOR. The light source originally used in photoelectric switches was an incandescent lamp, similar to the bulbs in your home. The chief advantage of this type is that you can actually see the light beam, making it easy to align the source with the receiver. It also helps to identify when the lamp is burned out. The main disadvantage of this type is that it cannot be used in sunlight or in areas where there is a lot of external light. Another problem with using the incandescent lamp is mechanical vibration, which can cause the filament to break resulting in premature failure. The infrared light emitting diode (IRLED) is the latest method used in photoelectric switching. It is a solid state device and it unaffected by mechanical vibrations. The life expectancy of the IRLED is hundred of -years while the incandescent lamp is in the range of 1,000 to 10,000 hours. Because of this, lamp life is life is no longer a major source of system failure. Since the LED has no filament to break, it can be reliably used on application where there is heavy vibration
The LED's life is so long that it usually will outlast the life of the switch contacts. Therefore, manufacturers permanently encase the LED in the photoelectric switch. This helps protect the switch and reduce cost. The above advantages have made the modulated LED- type photoelectric switch the best choice for most applications. The only application it cannot approach is the sensing of colour differences. This is because the LED only emits light of one wavelength (colour). This application still requires the use of an incandescent light source. The method in which the receiver receives the light beam from the transmitter is called the DETECTION METHOD or SCANNING TECHNIQUE.
There are three primary methods used in industry. The three methods are: 1) Direct, 2) Retro reflective, and 3) Proximity as shown in Figure 4.2.
DESCRIBE THROUGH-BEAM OR DIRECT DETECTION METHOD Through-beam sensors have a transmitter, which emit pulses, and a receiver. If the beam between the transmitter and the receiver is interrupted the output of the receiver switches the state (high to low or low to high).
Advantages: Large sensing distance is possible as emitter and receiver are kept opposite to each other. Suitable for precise detection of large as well as small objects. Repeatability and indexing precision are not impaired even if the object surface or background is reflecting. Field Of Application: Through Beam Sensors are used for sensing semi-transparent opaque objects such as glass/plastic bottle, silver breakage detection, paper breakage detection, door opening/closing etc. DESCRIBE RETRO-REFLECTIVE DETECTION METHOD The retro-reflective method uses a reflector located in the pre-set operating range. The operating range is adjusted for the reflector. The pulses are bounced off the reflector and the echo pulses are returned to the sensor. When a target blocks the echo pulses, the output is activated. The retro-reflective method is typically used in applications where the target is good sound absorber. Advantages: Easy assembly compared to the through beam type. Large active sensing range compared to diffused beam type. Field Of Application: This sensor can be used where it is difficult to install a through-beam sensor due to space constraint. Furthermore, simple wiring makes it suitable where sensing objects are bigger in size. Thus, these sensors are used for loop control in decoiler, edge detection in paper / sheet metal etc. DESCRIBE DIFFUSED-REFLECTIVE OR PROXIMITY DETECTION METHOD Diffused-reflective or proximity method is the standard mode of operation. In this mode, objects travelling in any direction into the operating range of the sound cone will cause the sensor to switch output states. Reflectivity is affected by material type, colour, and texture. A higher degree of reflectivity is desirable when using proximity detection because it will better reflect the beam back to the sensor. proximity detection is the type of reflection that is taking place. If the object is smooth and highly polished, it will reflect the beam off the same angle as the light striking the surface. This is called SPECULAR reflection and is shown in Figure 4.7. lf the object is rough or unpolished, such as wood, the beam will be reflected off at many angles in approximately equal amounts. This is called DIFFUSE reflection and is shown in Figure 4.8. Advantages: Correction Factor For Sensing Distance: Transmitter and receiver are housed in the same housing. As the self-reflection of an object is used for detection; dark & light marks can be distinguished. Field Of Application:
These sensors are particularly used for position sensing and counting of non- metallic objects. It is also used for label sensing, level sensing, height sensing, plastic film sensing, edge detection of paper or sheet metal etc.
Features of this type of sensor include: Noncontact detection. Noncontact detection eliminates damage either to the target or sensor head, ensuring long service life and maintenance-free operation. Detection of targets of virtually any material. Detection is based on the quantity of light received, or the change in the quantity of light received, or the change in the quantity of reflected light. This method allows detection of targets of diverse materials such as glass metal, plastics, wood, and liquid. Long detecting distance. The reflective-type photoelectric sensor can detect a distance of 1 m, and the through-beam type has a detecting distance of 10 m.
High response speed. The photoelectric sensor is capable of a response speed as high as 50 s (1/20,000 s). Colour discrimination. The sensor has the ability to detect light from an object based on the reflectance and absorbance of its colour, thus permitting colour detection and discrimination. Highly accurate detection. A unique optical system and a precision electronic circuit allow highly accurate positioning and detection of minute objects. For example, a reflective-type photoelectric sensor used for the detection of the presence of absence of a label is shown in Figure 4.9(a). In Figure 4.9(b), through-beam photoelectric sensor heads are positioned above and below the resistors travelling on a production line. A variation on the line changes the quantity of the laser beam, thus signalling a defect. In most photoelectric sensors, a light-emitting diode (LED) is the light-transmitting source, and a phototransistor is the receiving source (Figure 4.10). In operation, light from the LED falls on the input of the phototransistor, and the amount of conduction through the transistor changes. Analog outputs provide an output proportional to the quantity of light seen by the photo detector. Dark Operate Dark Operate (DO) is an operating mode in which the load is energized when light from the emitter is absent from the receiver.
Light Operate
Light Operate (LO) is an operating mode in which the load is energized when light from the emitter reaches the receiver.
Operating Modes Table 1 below shows the relationship between operating mode and load status for through, retro-reflective and diffuse scan sensors.
Describe The Functions And Properties Of Fibre Optics
A fibre-optic sensor system consists of a fibre-optic cable connected to a remote sensor, or amplifier (Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1 in a fibre-optic sensing system; the emitter and the receiver share a single housing. The fibre-optic cable that is connected to the amplifier allows the sensor to reach areas inaccessible to standard photoelectric sensors.
The sensor emits, receives, and converts the light energy into an electrical signal. The cable is the mechanical component that transports the light into and out of areas that are either too space constrained or too hostile back to the sensor. Fibre-optic cable consists of a plastic or glass core surrounded by a layer of cladding material (Figure 5.2). The difference in densities between these two components enables the cables to act in accordance with the principle of total internal reflection, which will be discussed later.
Glass Fibres Optical fibre can be made of either glass or plastic. Glass optical fibres consist of a bundle of very thin glass strands, each typically measuring 0.051 mm (0.002 in.) dia. A flexible stainless steelarmoured sheath is usually added to protect the bundle of cladded fibres, but for some applications a polyvinyl- chloride jacket (PVC) is used.
Glass, by nature, is very resilient, a trait that enables it to perform reliably under extreme conditions such as high temperatures or a corrosive environment. Glass fibre bundles can withstand operating temperatures as high as 450F as standard product. Customers whose applications have operating temperatures >450F can special-order cables capable of surviving operating temperatures as high as 1200F.
Plastic Fibres Plastic fibre-optic cable usually consists of a single strand typically 0.254 1.52 mm dia. These fibres are flexible, and excellent for applications that require repeated flexing as well as for use in extremely tight areas. They generally are sold with a cutting device that allows customers to trim to the desired length.
If the sensor is going to be exposed to harsh chemicals, solvents, or high temperatures, glass fibres are preferable. But plastic fibres can be sheathed with teflon, nylon, or polypropylene for added immunity to hostile environments.
The degree to which light energy is attenuated as it travels through optical fibre is influenced by three factors: the fibre material, the distance travelled in the fibre, and the wavelength of the light. Glass fibres perform fairly consistently at all wavelengths. Plastic fibres, however, tend to absorb light from IR LEDs. Visible LEDs, such as red, exhibit less attenuation in plastic optical fibre and are therefore in wider use.
Describe Sensing Modes And Fibre-Optic Assemblies Because fibre-optic sensor systems are a derivative of photoelectric sensing technology, photoelectric sensing modes (diffuse reflective, through-beam, retro-reflective) are also available for fibre optics. The two types of fibre- optic assemblies that address these sensing modes are individual and bifurcated.
Fibre-optic through-beam mode, as shown in Figure 5.3, requires two cables. One is attached to the emitter of the remote sensor and is used to guide light energy to a sensing location. The other is attached to the receiver of the remote sensor and is used to guide light energy from the sensing location back to the remote sensor. As with standard through-beam photoelectric sensing, the emitter and detector cables are positioned opposite each other. Sensing is achieved when the light beam that extends from the emitter to the receiver fibre-optic cable is interrupted.
A bifurcated fibre-optic assembly is used for both diffuse reflective and retro-reflective sensing. In contrast to an individual cable, a bifurcated cable combines the emitter and the receiver cable assemblies into one assembly. The emitter and receiver strands are laid side-by-side along the length of the cable as shown in figure 5.3 and are randomly mixed at the sensing point, an ideal configuration for applications that require a compact sensing tip. When an object is in front of the sensing tip of the bifurcated cable, light from the emitter cable reflects off the object and back into the receiver of the remote sensor via the receiver cable, and detection is achieved.
Control Circuits Fibre optic switches (FOS) are connected into a control circuit similar to a limit switch except that the infrared switch requires a power supply to operate. As illustrated in figure 5.4, the fibre optic switch explained in the sensor kit requires power connected to one set of terminals. The other set of terminals are the contacts to which a load is connected. One terminal will conduct current when it sees dark, the other when it sees light.
Advantages Of Optical Fibres
Optical fibres offer less attenuation of transmitted signals. Optical fibres can handle data at a wide range of transmission rates, even high-speed computer data can be handled by optical fibres. The frequency of light signal used in optical fibre transmission is very high (10 14 Hz). Optical fibres can transmit power, but this capability is limited. The security of communication systems involving optical fibres is much higher than for other systems. Any attempt to physically intercept the light travelling down an optical fibre will change the characteristics of the signal. Optical fibres are small. Optical fibres weigh very little. Optical fibres are flexible.
Disadvantages Of Optical Fibres
1. Optical fibres cannot carry electricity. This is a major drawback since virtually all equipment used in measurement, entertainment, and communications is electrical or electronic in nature. 2. Optical fibres are so small that they are difficult to handle. Coupling and splicing fibres are more complicated than soldering copper conductors. 3. Optical fibres are vulnerable to radiation. Ionizing radiation in some parts of the spectrum can change the index of refraction of the fibres.
Having said that though, the advantages of using optical fibres far outweigh the disadvantages.
Describe Magnetic Reed Switch Functions And Operation This type of switch is used to switch small electrical currents. The typical magnetic reed switch is rated to switch 50 to 250 milliamperes with a maximum voltage of 230 volts. This switch requires no physical connection, such as a handle or knob to actuate it. The switch consists of a glass tube containing two small ferromagnetic metal reeds. These reeds form the actual switch contacts. When a significantly strong magnetic field is brought near the reed switch, a magnetic field is induced in the reeds. The free ends of the reeds move because the poles of the induced magnetism obey the law of magnetism that unlike poles will attract each other. Magnetic reed switches are available in typical switch configurations. These include SPST, SPDT, DPST, and DPDT. A SPST switch is a single pole single throw switch. A normally open (NO) switch of this type is shown in Figure 6.2 below. The switch arrangement is known as a Form A configuration. This is the most widely used configuration for the magnetic reed switch.
Being mechanical the magnetic reed switch exhibits the characteristics of a typical mechanical switch. The illustration in Figure 6.3 below shows the operation of the magnetic reed switch with effect of the magnetic field on it. If the switch is a NO switch, the reeds will produce unlike poles. When these unlike poles become strong enough, the magnetic attraction will cause the free ends of the reeds to attract each other. This closes the switch.
The operation of these switches is affected by the amount and type of current passing through them. Switching of excessive currents will cause the reeds switch to pit and burn. Repeated overloads will cause the reeds to stick together and the switch is ruined. Figure 6.4 illustrates the derating curve and specifications for a typical magnetic reed switch. A higher switched voltage means load current must be lower.
The magnetic reed switch is not an electronic device. It is simply a low current switch. The switch may be placed either between the power source and the load to source current or between the load and ground to sink current. Figure 6.5 illustrates these typical configurations. Unlike the previous sensors, the magnetic reed switch is a bi- directional device. This means that electricity may flow through it in either direction. This also allows it to switch alternating currents.