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Myers EXPLORING

PSYCHOLOGY (7th Ed)


Chapter 9
Thinking, Language, and
Intelligence

James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University

Worth Publishers
Thinking
Cognition
mental activity associated with thinking,
knowing, and remembering
Cognitive Psychology
the study of these mental activities
concept formation
problem solving
decision making
judgment formation
study of both logical and illogical thinking
Thinking
Concept
mental grouping of similar objects, events, or
people
* Prototype
a mental image or best example of a
category
matching new items to the prototype provides a
quick and easy method for including items in a
category (as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
Thinking
*Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure
that guarantees solving a particular
problem
contrasts with the usually speedierbut
also more error-prone use of heuristics
Thinking
*Heuristic
rule-of-thumb strategy that often
allows us to make judgments and solve
problems efficiently
usually speedier but also more error-
prone than algorithms
sometimes were unaware of using
heuristics
Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G
Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations
Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations
other heuristics?
Thinking
Insight
sudden and often novel realization of the
solution to a problem
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms
ones preconceptions
Fixation *
inability to see a problem from a new
perspective and inhabits creativity
impediment to problem solving
Thinking--Insight
Wolfgang Kohlers experiment on insight by a
chimpanzee

The Matchstick
Problem
How would you
arrange six
matches to form
four equilateral
triangles?
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Using these
materials, how
would you mount
the candle on a
bulletin board?
Thinking
Functional Fixedness
tendency to think of things
only in terms of their usual
functions
impediment to problem
solving
The Matchstick
Problem
Solution to the
matchstick
problem
The Candle-Mounting
Problem
Solving this
problem
requires
recognizing that
a box need not
always serve as
a container
Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic
may lead one to ignore other
relevant information
rule of thumb for judging the
likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes
Heuristics
Availability Heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based
on their availability in memory
if instances come readily to mind (perhaps
because of their vividness), we presume
such events are common
Example: airplane crash
Thinking
Overconfidence *
to be more confident than correct
to overestimate the accuracy of
ones erroneous beliefs and
judgments
underestimate the extent to which
our beliefs and judgments are
erroneous.
Thinking
Framing
the way an issue is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly
affect decisions and judgments
Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
Belief Perseverance
clinging to ones initial conceptions after the
basis on which they were formed has been
discredited
By moving only one glass arrange so
full and empty glasses alternate
What is so unusual about the
sentence below?


Jackdaws love my big sphinx of
quartz.
What was it?
Something extraordinarily
unusual happened on the 6
th
of
May, 1978, at 12:34 p.m. What
was it?
What was it?
Something extraordinarily
unusual happened on the 6
th
of
May, 1978, at 12:34 p.m. What
was it?
12:34, 5/6/78
Can you translate the
following into a sentence?

I002O4180
Can you translate the
following into a sentence?
I002O4180

I ought naught to owe for I ate
nothing.
Who were they?
A man left home one morning. He turned
right and ran straight ahead. Then he
turned left. After a while, he turned left
again, running faster then ever. Then he
turned left once more and decided to go
home. In the distance he could see two
masked men waiting for him.
Can you translate the
following?

YYURYYUBICURYY4ME
Can you translate the
following?
YYURYYUBICURYY4ME
Too wise you are, Too wise you be,
I see you are, Too wise for me.
Language
Language
our spoken, written, or gestured
works and the way we combine them
to communicate meaning
Language
We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the
worlds languages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage able
to discriminate
Hindi ts
Hindi-
speaking
adults
6-8
months
8-10
months
10-12
months
English-
speaking
adults
Infants from English-speaking homes
Language
Babbling Stage
the stage of speech development in which the
infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first
unrelated to the household language
beginning at 3 to 4 months
One-Word Stage *
the stage in speech development during which a
child speaks mostly in single words
first begin to use sounds to communicate meaning
from about age 1 to age 2
Language
Two-Word Stage
beginning about age 2
the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly two-word
statements
Telegraphic Speech
early speech stage in which the child
speaks like a telegram go car using
mostly nouns and verbs and omitting
auxiliary words
Language
Summary of Language Development
Month
(approximate)
Stage
4
10
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals household
language.
One-word stage.
Two-word, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly into
complete sentences.
Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and
experience activates them as it modifies the brain
Genes
Environment
spoken language
heard
Brain
Mechanisms for
understanding and
producing language
Behavior
Mastery of
native
language
provides
input to
design
Language
New
language
learning
gets harder
with age
100
90
80
70
60
50
Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage
correct on
grammar
test
Age at arrival
Language
Linguistic Relativity
Whorfs hypothesis that
language determines the way
we think

What is Intelligence?
Intelligence
mental abilities needed to select,
adapt to, and shape environments
abilities involved
profit from experience
solve problems
reason effectively
meet challenges and achieve goals
Origins of Intelligence
* Mental Age
a measure of intelligence test
performance devised by Binet
chronological age typical of a given
level of performance
child who does as well as the average
8-year-old is said to have a mental age
of 8
Origins of Intelligence
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American
revision of Binets original
intelligence test
revised by Terman at Stanford
University
Origins of Intelligence
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
defined originally the ratio of mental
age (ma) to chronological age (ca)
multiplied by 100
IQ = ma/ca x 100)
on contemporary tests it is the average
performance for a given age is assigned
a score of 100
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
Factor Analysis
statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related
items (called factors) on a test
used to identify different dimensions of performance
that underlie ones total score
General Intelligence (g)
factor that Spearman and others believed underlies
specific mental abilities
measured by every task on an intelligence test
Factor Analysis Example
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
N .75 .74 .71 .58 .58 .63 .01 .04 -.06 -.04 -.02 .09
E .01 -.06 -.09 .02 -.06 .09 .48 .59 .59 .49 .68 .64
Correlations of Twelve MPI Items to Neuroticism and
Extraversion
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
Savant Syndrome
condition in which a person otherwise
limited in mental ability has an amazing
specific skill
computation
drawing
Creativity
ability to produce novel and valuable
ideas
Savant Syndrome
Stephen, Age 13 could not speak coherently or
cross the road by himself.
Are There Multiple
Intelligences?
Emotional Intelligence
ability to perceive, understand, and
manage emotions
critical part of social intelligence
Creativity and Relationships
Meduicks suggests that creativity
involves the ability to see
relationships between ideas that are
remote from each other.
Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
Logical-mathematical
Musical
Bodily-kinesthetic
Spatial
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic
The ability to use language, sensitivity to
the order of things. These people can
argue, persuade, entertain, or instruct
through the spoken word.
poet, translator
T. S. Eliot
Multiple Intelligences
Logical-mathematical
The ability to see the intelligence of
numbers and logic, ability to handle
chains of reasoning and to recognize
patterns and order. These people think in
terms of cause and effect and can create
and test hypotheses.
Mathematician, scientist
Einstein
Multiple Intelligences
Musical
Sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and
tone. These people can sing in tune,
keep time to music and listen to musical
selections with discernment
composer, singer
Stravinsky
Multiple Intelligences
Bodily-kinesthetic
The ability to use the body skillfully and
handle objects adroitly. These are
hands-on people with good tactile
sensitivity.
athlete, dancer, surgeon
Martha Graham
Multiple Intelligences
Spatial
The ability to perceive the world accurately and
to recreate or transform aspects of that world.
These people often have acute sensitivity to
visual details, can draw their ideas graphically,
and can orient themselves easily in 3-D space
sculptor, architect, surveyor
Picasso
Multiple Intelligences
Interpersonal
The ability to understand people and
relationships. These people can perceive
and respond to moods, temperaments,
intentions, and the desires of others.
politician, salesperson, religious leader
Gandhi
Multiple Intelligences
Intrapersonal
Access to one's emotional life as a means of
understanding oneself and others. These
people can easily access their own feelings,
discriminate among different emotional states,
and use this to enrich and guide their own lives.
therapist, social worker
Freud
Multiple Intelligences
Naturalist
The ability to understand categorize, and
explain patterns encountered in the
natural world. These people observe,
interpret, and construct meaning from the
natural world.
botanist, farmer, rancher
Charles Darwin
Assessing Intelligence
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS)
most widely used intelligence test
subtests
verbal
performance (nonverbal)
Assessing Intelligence
Standardization *
defining meaningful scores by comparison
with the performance of a pretested
standardization group
Normal Curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that
describes the distribution of many physical
and psychological attributes
most scores fall near the average; fewer and
fewer scores lie near the extremes
The Normal Curve
Ninety-five percent
of all people fall
within 30 points
of 100
Number
of
scores
55 70 85 100 115 130 145
Wechsler intelligence score
Sixty-eight percent
of people score
within 15 points
above or below 100
Assessing Intelligence
Reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent
results
assessed by consistency of scores on
two halves of the test
alternate forms of the test
retesting the same individual
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or
predicts what it is suppose to
Assessing Intelligence
Content Validity
the extent to which a test samples the
behavior that is of interest
driving test that samples driving tasks
Criterion
behavior (such as college grades) that a
test (such as the SAT) is designed to
predict
the measure used in defining whether
the test has predictive validity
Assessing Intelligence
Predictive Validity
success with which a test predicts the
behavior it is designed to predict
assessed by computing the correlation
between test scores and the criterion
behavior
also called criterion-related validity
Intelligence
Mental Retardation
a condition of limited mental ability
indicated by intelligence scores below 70
produces difficulty in adapting to the demands
of life
varies from mild to profound
Down Syndrome *
retardation and associated physical disorders
caused by an extra chromosome in genetic
make-up
Intelligence
Moderate 35-49 10 May progress to second-grade level.
academically. Adults may contribute
to their own support by labor in
sheltered workshops.
Degrees of Mental Retardation
Level Typical Intelligence Scores Percentage of the Retarded Adaptation to Demands of Life
Mild 50-70 85% May learn academic skills up to
sixth-grade level. Adults may, with
assistance, achieve self-supporting
social and vocational skills.
Severe 20-34 3-4 May learn to talk and perform simple
work tasks under close supervision
but are generally unable to profit from
vocational training.
Profound below 20 1-2 Require constant aid and supervision.

Intelligence
Creativity
the ability to produce novel and
valuable ideas
components of creativity
expertise
imaginative thinking skills
venturesome personality
intrinsic motivation
creative environment
Genetic Influences
The most
genetically
similar
people have
the most
similar
scores
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Similarity of
intelligence
scores
(correlation)
Identical
twins
reared
together
Identical
twins
reared
apart
Fraternal
twins
reared
together
Siblings
reared
together
Unrelated
individuals
reared
together
Heritability *
the proportion of variation among
individuals that we can attribute to
genes
variability depends on range of
populations and environments studied
Girls are most likely to outperform boys in a
spelling bee.
Boys are most likely to outnumber girls in a class
designed for students gifted in mathematics.
Genetic Influences
Genetic Influences
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
3 years 16 years
Child-parent
correlation in
verbal ability
scores
Children and their
birth parents

Adopted children
and their birth
parents

Adopted children
and their adoptive
parents
Nature and nurture
Genetic Influences
The schooling effect
Genetic Influences
Grade 6
Grade 5
Grade 4
110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150
Age in months
118
115
112
109
106
103
100
97
IQ gains relative
to grade 4
baseline
Genetic Influences
Group differences and environmental impact
Variation within group
Variation within group
Difference between groups
Poor soil Fertile soil
Seeds
Genetic Influences
The Mental Rotation Test of Spatial Abilities
Which two circles contains configuration of blocks
identical to the one in the circle at left?
Standard Responses
Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude Test
a test designed to predict a persons
future performance
aptitude is the capacity to learn
*Achievement Test
a test designed to assess what a
person has learned

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