MODULE 1- DESIGN OF

MACHINE ELEMENTS
MANUFACTURING CONSIDERATIONS
IN DESIGN, STRESS CONCENTRATION,
THEORIES OF FAILURE
SELECTION OF METHOD
The selection of method of manufacturing is one
of the most complicated area which a designer
has to come across.
The manufacturing processes can be broadly into
four classes
Casting processes
Deformation processes
Material removal or cutting processes
Powder metallurgy
CONSIDERATION FOR THE SELECTION
Material of the component
Cost of manufacture
Geometric shape of the component
Surface finish and tolerance required
Volume of production
Metal Castings
Types of casting
Design rules
Drafting practices
DISADVANTAGES
Simple and inexpensive tooling
Almost all metals can be cast
Complex shapes can be easily handled
ADVANTAGES
Not possible to achieve close tolerance
Rough surface finish
Long and thin sections are difficult
Types of casting:
Sand mould casting
Shell mould casting
Types of casting:
Plaster mould casting
Permanent mould
casting
Types of casting:
Investment mould casting (Formerly called
lost wax casting)
Centrifugal casting
Types of casting:
Die casting
Selection of a casting method is based
on:
Type of metal
Number of castings needed
Size and shape of part
Level of accuracy required
Casting finish

Design for Soundness
Most metals and alloys shrink when
they solidify.

Design components so that all members
of the parts increase in dimension
progressively to one or more suitable
areas where feeder heads (risers) can
be placed to offset liquid shrinkage
Fillet or round all sharp edges
Solidification of molten metal
always proceeds from the
mold face,
A simple section presents
uniform cooling and greatest
freedom from mechanical
weakness.
When two or more sections
conjoin, mechanical weakness
is induced at the junction and
free cooling is interrupted,
creating a hot spot, the most
common defect in casting
design

Minimize the Number of Sections
A well-designed casting brings the
minimum number of sections together
at one point. A simple wall section will
cool freely from all surfaces, but by
adding a section (forming a T), a hot spot
is created at the junction, and it will cool
like a wall that is 50% larger.

To prevent uneven cooling, bring the
minimum number of sections together
or stagger them so that no more than
two sections conjoin.

When this is not possible, a circular web
with adjoining sections is the preferred
way to design structures that must
intersect (4b).
Employ Uniform Sections
Thicker walls will solidify more slowly, so
they will feed thinner walls, resulting in
shrinkage voids. The goal is to design
uniform sections that solidify evenly. If
this is not possible, all heavy sections
should be accessible to feeding from
risers.



This hydraulic coupling was originally
designed with a core that caused
localized porosity. By redesigning the
component with uniform walls, the
weight of the casting was reduced,
lowering the manufacturing cost and
remedying the shrinkage problem.

Correctly Proportion Inner Walls
Inner sections of castings
(resulting from complex cores) cool
much slower than outer sections
and cause variations in strength
properties. A good rule is to reduce
inner sections to 0.9 of the thickness
of the outer wall.

The inside diameter of cylinders
and bushings should exceed the wall
thickness of castings. When the
inside diameter of a cylinder is less
than the wall thickness, it is better to
cast the section solid, as holes can
be produced by cheaper (and safer)
methods than with extremely thin
cores.
Fillet All Sharp Angles
Fillets (rounded corners) have three
functional purposes:

to reduce the stress concentration in
a casting in service;
to eliminate cracks, tears and draws
at reentry angles;
to make corners more moldable by
eliminating hot spots

To avoid a section size that is too large at
an "L" junction, round an outside corner to
match the fillet on the inside wall. Where
this is not possible, consideration must be
given to which is more vital: the
engineered design or the possible casting
defect.



Avoid Abrupt Section Changes
The difference in relative
thickness of adjoining sections
should not exceed a ratio of
2:1. If a greater difference is
unavoidable, consider a design
with detachable parts, like
machine tool beds that can be
bolted.
When a change in thickness is
less than 2:1, it may take the
form of a fillet. When the
difference is greater, the
recommended shift is in the
form of a wedge.
However, wedgeshaped
changes in wall thickness
should not taper more than 1
in 4. Where a combination of
light and heavy sections is
unavoidable, use fillets and
tapered sections to temper
the shifts.

Casting of Wheels
Use curved spokes
Use an odd number of
spokes
Consider wall thickness
Select parting lines
Drill holes in castings
Meehanite Metal Corp.
Avoid Using Bosses and Pads
Bosses and pads increase metal
thickness, create hot spots
Bosses should not be used in casting
design when the surface to support
bolts may be obtained by milling or
countersinking.
The thickness of bosses and pads
preferably should be less than the
thickness of the casting section they
adjoin but thick enough to permit
machining without touching the casting
wall.
In large castings, pouring a metal
section that is too heavy at the bosses
is difficult to feed. A better design is to
make the walls of the boss at uniform
thickness to the casting walls

Maximize Design of Ribs
Ribs have two functions: to increase stiffness and to
reduce weight. If they are too shallow or too widely
spaced, they can be ineffective.
The thickness of ribs should approximate 80% of the
adjoining thickness and should be rounded at the edge.
The design preference is for the ribs to be deeper than
they are thick
In general, ribs in compression offer a greater safety factor
than ribs in tension.
Avoid cross ribs or ribbing on both sides of a casting. Cross
ribbing creates hot spots and makes feeding difficult.
Instead, design cross-coupled ribs in a staggered double
"T" form.
On a casting drawing, the primary datum surface should be:
Able to be used for mounting the part and as a basis for
measurement
Not machined
Parallel with the top of the mold or parting line
Integral with the main body of the casting
Able to be clamped without distortion
A surface that will provide locating points as far apart as
possible
FORGING
FORGING
In forging, metal is taken to its plastic stage and
forced to flow into desired shape.
Different types of forgings are
Hand forging
Drop forging
Press forging
Upset forging
ADVANTAGES
Fibrelines can be arranged in a predetermined
way
Good utilization of materials
Can be provided with thin sections without
affecting the strength
Closer tolerance can be achieved
High production rate and reproductivity

DISADVANTAGES
Costly method
Useful only in the large scale production
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR
FORGINGS
Orientation of the fibres
Forging should be provided with adequate
draft
Should fix the parting line sensibly
Should have adequate fillet and corner radii
Try to avoid very thin sections
MACHINING
MACHINING
Material removal or cutting process is the most
versatile and common production methodology.
Finishing operation always require a machining
process
It is classified into
Metal cutting process
Grinding process
Unconventional machining process
ADVANTAGES
Any material can be machined
Best tolerances
Good surface finish
DISADVANTAGES
Costly and low rate of production
Difficult to machine thin sections
Wastage of material
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
To the maximum extent, avoid machining
Sensibly provide the tolerances
Avoid sharp corners
Use stock dimensions
Design rigid parts
Avoid shoulders and undercuts
Avoid hard materials
Powder Metallurgy.


Design considerations
Definition:
Powder metallurgy
The process of making parts by
compressing and sintering powders into
shape
Design considerations in powder
metallurgy:
Ejection from the die
Axial variations

Reverse tapers
Corner reliefs
Design considerations in powder
metallurgy:
Holes at right
angles to the
direction of
pressing
Undercuts
Knurls
Design considerations in powder
metallurgy:
Blind holes
Flanges
Corners
Design considerations in powder
metallurgy:
Wall thickness
Chamfers
Changes in cross
section
STRESS CONCENTRATION
Localisation of the stresses due to irregularities present in the
component or abrupt changes in the cross-section.
It can be due to the following reasons in manufacturing
Internal cracks or flaws
Cavities in welds
Air holes
Foreign inclusions
It can also be due to faulty designs like
Abrupt changes in sections
Discontinuities in the component
Machining scratches
STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR
The stress concentration is considered in a
design by applying stress concentration factor K
t

in the design process. It is determined by two
methods
Mathematical methods- Using FEA analysis
Experimental methods- Photo elasticity

REASON FOR STRESS CONCENTRATION
Abrupt changes in cross sections without
understanding the flow anology
Not providing fillet radius
undercutting and notching for members in
tension
Drilling additional holes for shafts
Thread cutting

REDUCTION OF STRESS
CONCENTRATION
Additional notches and holes in Tension member
Fillet radius, undercutting and notching for members in
bending
Drilling additional properly designed holes around a
keyway of a shaft
For threaded component, the reduction in the stress
concentration can be achieved by
providing an undercut just before the staring of
thread
Make the base shaft diameter slightly less than the
root diameter of the thread.


THEORIES OF FAILURE
Maximum principal stress theory ( Rankines Theory)
Maximum Principal Strain Theory ( St. Venants Theory)
Maximum shear stress theory (Guests or Trescas
Theory)
Maximum total strain energy theory ( Haighs Theory)
Shear strain energy Theory (Von Mises Theory)
Maximum principal stress theory
( Rankines Theory)
Based on the work done on brittle materials
Failure of the component acted upon by bi-
axial or tri-axial loads occurs when the
maximum principal stress reaches the yield
point or ultimate tensile stress of the material

Gives good results for brittle materials
1 m
Maximum Principal Strain Theory ( St.
Venants Theory)
The elastic failure occurs when maximum
principal strain on the material crosses the
strain at the limit in the simple tension test
Not practically used now due to the absence
of experimental basis

] 2 1
1
[
1

m E

Maximum shear stress theory (Guests
or Trescas Theory)
Failure of the component acted upon by bi-
axial or tri-axial loads occurs when the
maximum shear stress reaches the maximum
shear stress of the material
Gives good results for ductile materials
2 1 m
Maximum total strain energy theory
( Haighs Theory)
According to this theory, elastic failure occurs
when the energy per unit volume in the
strained material reaches the value of the
strain energy per unit volume at the elastic
limit.

E
e
m E 2
2
2
[
2
1
]
2 1
2
2
2
1

Shear strain energy Theory (Von Mises
Theory)
This theory states that the elastic failure
occurs when the shear strain energy per unit
volume in the stressed material reaches a
value equal to the shear strain energy per unit
volume at elastic limit
2 2
1
2
2
2
2 1
2 ) (
e

SHOCK AND IMPACT LOADS
The shock and impact loads are sudden loads
like the load that comes to the suspension
system and adjoining brackets when the
vehicle negotiates a rough patch in the road.
This is usually taken as double the normal load
coming to the part. ( Derivation)
CYCLIC STRESSES
The condition of static loads in a component is
very rare
In most of the cases, components are subjected
to loads which are varying in nature and having
varying magnitudes and frequencies
Fourier series is employed for finding out the
variation in complicated cases
The material fails at a very low stress when
compared to the static load conditions when we
apply the fluctuating loads.
FATIGUE FAILURE
The failure of a component subjected to cyclic
stresses is termed as fatigue failure
There are three mathematical models for
cyclic stresses (graphs)
Fluctuating or alternating stresses
Repeated stresses
Reversed stresses
FACTORS
Number of cycles
Mean stress
Stress amplitude
Stress concentration
Residual stresses
Corrosion
Creep
ENDURANCE LIMIT
Fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined
as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stresses that the standard specimen can
sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without
fatigue failure
Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for
infinite cycles 10
6
cycles is considered as
sufficient number of cycles to define endurance
strength
SODERBERG AND GOODMAN LINES
FACTOR OF SAFETY
The designer should be able to foresee the
defects that can be expected in the
component during manufacturing phase and
during the final usage stage by the customer.
To account these expectations, the designer
multiplies a factor called factor of safety to the
designed material to overcome these
deficiencies. This factor is known as Factor of
Safety..
CREEP
When a component is constantly subjected to
a load, it may undergo a constant plastic
deformation over a period of time. This time
dependant strain is called creep.
It is a function of stress level and temperature.

THERMAL STRESSES
When a fixed component in a machine is
subjected to change in temperature it tries to
expand or contract according to the variation
in temperature.
If there is no room for the component to
accommodate this variation in temperature,
thermal stresses are induced in the material.

RESIDUAL STRESSES
Stresses are classified into load stresses and
residual stresses or internal stresses or locked-in
stresses.
These stresses are induced as a result of
manufacturing processes and assembly methods.
When a material with residual stresses is used as
a part of an assembly, the stress acting on the
component will be the sum of the two stresses.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Reasons for residual stresses can be
Manufacturing processes
Machining methods
Cold working processes
Chemical processes
Heat treatment
Assembly operations
END OF MODULE 1