SISTEM SARAF I

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Central Nervous System
Brain
Spinal Cord
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Directional Terms of the Central Nervous System
Directional terms unique to the CNS
Rostral toward the nose (anterior)
Caudal toward the tail (posterior)
Dorsal superior
Ventral - inferior
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Four Main Regions of the Brain
Cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalon
Brain stem:
midbrain
Pons
medulla
Cerebellum
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Basic Organization of Gray and White Matter in the CNS
Figure 13.5
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Ventricles of the Brain

Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Lined with ependymal cells
Continuous with each other
Continuous with the central canal of the spinal
cord
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Lateral Ventricles
Figure 13.6a, b
Lateral ventricles located in cerebral hemispheres
Horseshoe-shaped

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Third Ventricle
Figure 13.6a, b
Third ventricle lies in diencephalon
Connected with lateral ventricles by interventricular foramen
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Fourth Ventricle
Figure 13.6a, b
Fourth ventricle lies in hindbrain
Connects to the central canal of the spinal cord
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Ventricles of the Brain
Figure 13.6a, b
Cerebral aqueduct connects 3rd and 4th ventricles

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The Cerebral Hemispheres
Account for 83% of brain mass
Landmarks
Lateral fissure
Longitudinal fissure
Sulci (sulcus) grooves
Gyri (gyrus) ridges
Central sulcus

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The Cerebral Hemispheres: Fissures
Fissures deep grooves separate major regions of
the brain
Transverse fissure separates cerebrum and
cerebellum
Longitudinal fissure separates cerebral
hemispheres
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The Cerebral Hemispheres: Sulci and Gyri
Sulci grooves on the surface of the cerebral
hemispheres
Gyri twisted ridges between sulci
Prominent gyri and sulci are similar in all people
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The Cerebral Lobes
Deeper sulci divide cerebrum into lobes
Lobes are named for the skull bones overlying
them
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Frontal Lobe
Anterior/rostral to central sulcus
Superior to transverse/lateral fissure
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Parietal Lobe
Posterior to central sulcus
Superior to lateral fissure
Anterior to parieto-occipital sulcus
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Temporal Lobe
Inferior to lateral fissure (sulcus)
Anterior to occipital lobe
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Occipital Lobe
Posterior & inferior to parieto-occipital sulcus
Posterior to temporal lobe

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Top View of the Cerebral Hemispheres
Figure 13.7b, c
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Insula
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Gray and White Matter in the CNS
Frontal section through forebrain
Cerebral cortex
Cerebral white matter
Deep gray matter of the cerebrum (basal ganglia)
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Frontal Section of Forebrain
Figure 13.8
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The Cerebral Cortex
Composed of gray matter 2 4 mm thick
Neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and short axons
Folds in cortex triples its size
Approximately 40% of brains mass
Brodmann areas 52 structurally distinct areas
(we will not cover these by number, only name)
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Functional and Structural Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Figure 13.11a
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Functional and Structural Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
Figure 13.11b
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The Cerebral Cortex
Three kinds of functional areas
Motor areas
Sensory areas
Association areas
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Motor Areas Primary Motor Cortex
Controls motor functions
Primary motor cortex (somatic
motor area)
Located in precentral gyrus
Pyramidal cells large neurons
of primary motor cortex
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Motor Areas Corticospinal Tract (Pyramidal Tract)
Corticospinal tracts descend through brainstem
and spinal cord
Axons signal motor neurons to control fine skilled
movements
Contralateral pyramidal axons cross over to
opposite side of the brain
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Corticospinal Tract
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Primary Motor Cortex Organization
Specific pyramidal cells control specific areas of
the body
Face and hand muscles controlled by many
pyramidal cells for fine control
Motor homunculus body map of the motor
cortex
Somatotopy body is represented spatially in
many parts of the CNS
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Motor Homunculus
Figure 13.10
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Motor Areas Premotor Cortex
Located anterior to the precentral
gyrus
Controls more complex movements
Involved in the planning of
movements
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Motor Areas Frontal Eye Field
Lies anterior to the premotor cortex
Controls voluntary movement of the eyes
Especially when moving eyes to follow a moving
target
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Motor Areas Brocas Area
Located in left cerebral hemisphere
Manages speech production
Corresponding region in the right cerebral
hemisphere
Controls emotional overtones to spoken words
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Sensory Areas
Cortical areas involved in conscious awareness of
sensation
Distinct area for each of the major senses
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Sensory Areas Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Located along the postcentral
gyrus or parietal lobe
Involved with conscious
awareness of general somatic
senses
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Sensory Areas Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Projection is contralateral
Cerebral hemispheres
Receive sensory input from the opposite side of the
body
Sensory homunculus a body map of the sensory
cortex
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Sensory Areas Sensory Homunculus
Figure 13.10
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Sensory Areas Somatosensory Association Area
Lies posterior to the primary
somatosensory cortex
Integrates different sensory
inputs
Touch, pressure, and others
Draws upon stored memories
of past sensory experiences
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Sensory Areas Primary Visual Cortex
Primary visual cortex
Located deep within the
calcarine sulcus
On the posterior and medial
part of the occipital lobe
Receives visual information
that originates on the retina
First of a series of areas that
interprets visual input
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Sensory Areas Visual Association Areas
Visual association area
Surrounds the primary visual
area
Continues the processing of
visual information
Complex visual processing
extends into:
Temporal and parietal lobes
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Visual Association Areas continued
Approximately 30 cortical areas have been
identified
Visual information proceeds in two streams

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Sensory Areas Ventral and Dorsal Streams
Ventral stream into inferior part of the temporal
lobe
Responsible for recognizing objects, words, and
faces = What
Dorsal stream extends to the postcentral gyrus
Perceives spatial relationships = Where
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Sensory Areas Primary Auditory Cortex
Primary auditory cortex
Function conscious awareness of sound
Location superior edge of the temporal lobe
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Sensory Areas Auditory Association Areas
Auditory association area
Lies posterior to the
primary auditory cortex
Permits evaluation of
different sounds
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Sensory Areas Gustatory Cortex
Involved in the conscious
awareness of taste stimuli
Located on the roof of the
lateral sulcus
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Sensory Areas Vestibular Cortex
Located in the posterior
part of the insula
Deep to the lateral
sulcus
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Sensory Areas Olfactory Cortex
Lies on the medial aspect
of the cerebrum
Located in a region called
the piriform lobe
Olfactory nerves transmit
impulses to the olfactory
cortex
Provides conscious
awareness of smells
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Sensory Areas Olfactory Cortex
Connects the brain to the limbic system
Explains why smells trigger emotions
Orbitofrontal cortex
Involved with consciously identifying and recalling
specific smells
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Association Areas
Make associations between different types of
sensory information
Associate new sensory input with memories of
past experiences
New name for association areas higher order
processing areas
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Association Areas Prefrontal Cortex
Large region of the frontal lobe anterior to motor
areas
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Association Areas Prefrontal Cortex
Performs cognitive functions
All aspects of thinking and perceiving
Remembering and recalling information
Problem solving
Also related to mood
Has close links to the limbic part of the forebrain
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Association Areas General Interpretation Area
Function is currently under
investigation
Located at the interface of:
The visual, auditory, and
somatosensory association
areas
Newer studies show most of
this region is involved in the
visual processing of spatial
relationships
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Association Areas Language Area
Surrounds the lateral sulcus in the left cerebral
hemisphere
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Association Areas Language Area
Five parts have been identified
Brocas area speech production
Wernickes area speech comprehension
Lateral prefrontal cortex conceptual analysis of spoken words
Most of the lateral and inferior temporal lobe
Coordination of auditory and visual aspects of language
Parts of the insula
Initiation of word articulation
Recognition of rhymes and sound sequences
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Language Areas of the Cortex
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Association Areas Insula
Functions of its cortex not well understood
Some parts function in language and the sense of
balance
Other parts visceral function
Conscious perception of:
Upset stomach
Full bladder
Some aspects of the sense of smell
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Lateralization of Cortical Functioning
The two hemispheres control opposite sides of the
body
Hemispheres are specialized for different
cognitive functions
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Lateralization of Cortical Functioning
Left cerebral hemisphere more control over:
Language abilities, math, and logic
Right cerebral hemisphere more involved with:
Visual-spatial skills
Reading facial expressions
Intuition, emotion, artistic and musical skills
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Cerebral White Matter
Different areas of the cerebral cortex
communicate:
With each other
With the brainstem and spinal cord
Fibers are usually myelinated and bundled into
tracts
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Cerebral White Matter
Types of tracts
Commissures composed of commissural fibers
Allows communication between cerebral
hemispheres
Corpus callosum the largest commissure
Association fibers
Connect different parts of the same hemisphere
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Corpus Callosum
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Cerebral White Matter
Figure 13.13a
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Cerebral White Matter
Types of tracts (continued)
Projection fibers run vertically
Descend from the cerebral cortex
Ascend to the cortex from lower regions
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Cerebral White Matter
Figure 13.13b
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White Matter: MRI
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White Matter: Horizontal Section
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Deep Gray Matter of the Cerebrum
Consists of:
Basal forebrain nuclei associated with memory
Basal ganglia invovled in motor control
Claustrum a nucleus of unknown function
Amygdala located in cerebrum but is considered
part of the of the limbic system
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Basal Ganglia
A group of nuclei deep within the cerebral white
matter
Caudate nucleus arches over the thalamus
Lentiform nucleus lens shaped
Together, these nuclei are called the corpus
striatum
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Basal Ganglia
Lentiform nucleus
Divided into two parts
Globus pallidus
Putamen
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Basal Ganglia
Figure 13.13b
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Figure 13.14a
Basal Ganglia
Corpus striatum combination of the lentiform
and caudate nuclei
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Basal Ganglia MRI
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Basal Ganglia
Cooperate with the cerebral cortex in controlling
movements
Receive input from many cortical areas
Evidence shows that they:
Start, stop, and regulate intensity of voluntary
movements
In some way estimate the passage of time
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The Diencephalon
Forms the center core of the forebrain
Surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres
Composed of three paired structures:
Thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
Border the third ventricle
Primarily composed of gray matter
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The Diencephalon and Brainstem: Sagittal Section
Figure 13.15
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The Diencephalon: Lateral View
Figure 13.16a
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The Diencephalon: Coronal Section
Figure 13.16b
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The Diencephalon The Thalamus
Makes up 80% of the diencephalon
Contains approximately a dozen major nuclei
Send axons to regions of the cerebral cortex
Nuclei act as relay stations for incoming sensory
messages
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The Diencephalon The Thalamus
Afferent impulses converge on the thalamus
Synapse in at least one of its nuclei
Is the gateway to the cerebral cortex
Nuclei organize and amplify or tone down signals
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The Thalamus
Figure 13.17a
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The Diencephalon The Hypothalamus
Lies between the optic chiasm and the mammillary
bodies
Pituitary gland projects inferiorly
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
Contains approximately a dozen nuclei
Main visceral control center of the body
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The Diencephalon The Hypothalamus
Functions include the following:
Control of the autonomic nervous system
Control of emotional responses
Regulation of body temperature
Regulation of hunger and thirst sensations
Control of behavior
Regulation of sleep-wake cycles
Neural communication with endocrine system
Formation of memory
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Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
Figure 13.18
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The Diencephalon The Epithalamus
Forms part of the roof
of the third ventricle
Consists of a tiny group of
nuclei
Includes the pineal gland
(pineal body)
Secretes the hormone
melatonin
Under influence of the
hypothalamus
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The Brain Stem
Includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata
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Ventral View of the Brain Brain Stem and Diencephalon
Figure 13.19
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The Brain Stem and Diencephalon
Figure 13.20a, b
Ventral
Lateral Dorsal
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The Brain Stem: General Functions
Produces automatic behaviors necessary for
survival
Passageway for all fiber tracts running between the
cerebrum and spinal cord
Heavily involved with the innervation of the face
and head
10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves attach to it
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The Brain Stem The Midbrain
Lies between the diencephalon
and the pons
Central cavity the cerebral
aqueduct
Cerebral peduncles located on
the ventral surface of the brain
Contain pyramidal
(corticospinal) tracts
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Connect midbrain to the
cerebellum
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Figure 13.21a
The Brain Stem The Midbrain
Periaqueductal gray
matter surrounds the
cerebral aqueduct
Involved in two
related functions
Fright-and-flight
reaction
Mediates response
to visceral pain
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The Brain Stem The Midbrain
Corpora quadrigemina the largest nuclei
Divided into the superior and inferior colliculi
Superior colliculi nuclei that act in visual reflexes
Inferior colliculi nuclei that act in reflexive
response to sound
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The Brain Stem The Midbrain
Imbedded in the white matter
of the midbrain
Two pigmented nuclei
Substantia nigra neuronal
cell bodies contain melanin
Functionally linked to the
basal nuclei
Red nucleus lies deep to the
substantia nigra
Largest nucleus of the
reticular formation
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The Brain Stem The Pons
Located between the
midbrain and medulla
oblongata
Contains the nuclei of
cranial nerves V, VI,
and VII
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The Brain Stem The Medulla Oblongata
Most caudal level of
the brain stem
Continuous with the
spinal cord
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The Brain Stem The Medulla Oblongata
Choroid plexus lies in the
roof of the fourth ventricle
Pyramids of the medulla
lie on its ventral surface
Decussation of the
pyramids crossing over
of motor tracts
Cranial nerves VIIIXII
attach to the medulla
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The Brain Stem The Medulla Oblongata
The core of the medulla contains:
Much of the reticular formation
Nuclei influence autonomic functions
Visceral centers of the reticular formation include:
Cardiac center
Vasomotor center
The medullary respiratory center
Centers for hiccupping, sneezing, swallowing, and
coughing
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The Cerebellum
Located dorsal to the pons and medulla
Smoothes and coordinates body movements
Helps maintain equilibrium
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The Cerebellum
Consists of two cerebellar hemispheres
Surface folded into ridges called folia
Separated by fissures
Hemispheres each subdivided into:
Anterior lobe
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe
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Cerebellum
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Cerebellum: Posterior View
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The Cerebellum: Frontal Section
Composed of three regions
Cortex gray matter
Internal white matter
Deep cerebellar nuclei deeply situated gray
matter
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Cerebellum: Sagittal Section
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The Cerebellum
Cerebellum must receive information
On equilibrium
On current movements of limbs, neck, and trunk
From the cerebral cortex
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The Cerebellum Cerebellar Peduncles
Thick tracts connecting the
cerebellum to the brain stem
Superior cerebellar peduncles
Middle cerebellar peduncles
Inferior cerebellar peduncles
Fibers to and from the
cerebellum are ipsilateral
Run to and from the same
side of the body
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Decussation of Superior Cerebellar Peduncle
1. Decussation of superior cerebellar peduncles 2. Superior cerebellar
peduncle 3. Superior medullary velum 4. Fastigial nucleus 5. Globose nuclei
6. Emboliform nucleus 7. White matter of vermis 8. Dentate nucleus
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Functional Brain Systems
Networks of neurons functioning together
The limbic system spread widely in the forebrain
The reticular formation spans the brain stem
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Functional Brain Systems The Limbic System
Location
Medial aspect of cerebral hemispheres
Also within the diencephalon
Composed of:
Septal nuclei, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampal
formation
Part of the amygdala
The fornix and other tracts link the limbic system
together
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Functional Brain Systems The Limbic System
Figure 13.23
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Functional Brain Systems The Limbic System
The emotional brain
Cingulate gyrus
Allows us to shift between thoughts
Interprets pain as unpleasant
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus
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Functional Brain Systems The Reticular Formation
Runs through the central core of the medulla,
pons, and midbrain
Forms three columns
Midline raphe nuclei
Medial nuclear group
Lateral nuclear group
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Functional Brain Systems The Reticular Formation
Figure 13.21c
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Functional Brain Systems The Reticular Formation
Widespread connections
Ideal for arousal of the brain as a whole
Reticular activating system (RAS)
Maintains consciousness and alertness
Functions in sleep and arousal from sleep
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Functional Brain Systems The Reticular Formation
Figure 13.24
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Protection of the Brain
The brain is protected from injury by
The skull
Meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood-brain barrier
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Protection of the Brain Meninges
Three meninges
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
Cover and protect the CNS
Enclose and protect the vessels that supply the
CNS
Contain the cerebrospinal fluid
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The Dura Mater
Strongest of the meninges
Composed of two layers
Periosteal layer
Meningeal layer
Two layers are fused except to enclose the dural
sinuses
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The Dura Mater
Figure 13.25a
Periosteal dura
Meningeal dura
Superior sagittal
sinus
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Dura mater
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The Dura Mater
Largest sinus the
superior sagittal sinus
Dura mater extends
inward to subdivide
the cranial cavity
Figure 13.26
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Falx Cerebri
1. falx cerebri
2. location of inferior sagittal sinus
3. location of superior sagittal sinus
4. location of straight sinus
5. tentorium cerebelli
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The Arachnoid Mater
Located beneath the dura mater
Subdural space
Potential space between dura and arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space
Filled with CSF
Contains the blood vessels that supply the brain
Arachnoid villi
Allow CSF to pass into the dural blood sinuses
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Arachnoid Mater
Arachnoid mater
Arachnoid villus
Subdural space
Subarachnoid
space
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Arachnoid mater
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The Pia Mater
Delicate connective tissue
Clings tightly to the surface of the brain
Follows all convolutions of the cortex
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The Pia Mater
Figure 13.25a
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Protection of the Brain Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Provides a liquid cushion for the brain and spinal
cord
The brain floats in CSF
Formed in choroid plexuses in the brain
ventricles
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Choroid Plexus
Choroid plexus
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Choroid Plexus and Production of CSF
Figure 13.27a
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Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
Figure 13.27b
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Protection of the Brain Blood-Brain Barrier
Prevents most blood-borne toxins from entering
the brain
Impermeable capillaries
Not an absolute barrier
Nutrients such as oxygen pass through
Allows alcohol, nicotine, and anesthetics through
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Blood-Brain Barrier
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The Spinal Cord
Runs through the
vertebral canal
Extends from the
foramen magnum to the
level of the vertebra L
1
or
L
2

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Spinal Cord: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral
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The Spinal Cord Meninges
Protected by bone,
meninges, and CSF
Dura mater of the spinal
cord
The spinal dural sheath
only one layer
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Spinal Cord Meninges
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
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Cervical and Lumbar Enlargements
Where nerves for upper and lower
limbs arise
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The Spinal Cord
Conus medullaris the inferior end of the spinal
cord
Filum terminale long filament of connective
tissue
Attaches to the coccyx inferiorly
Cauda equina collection of nerve roots
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The Spinal Cord
Figure 13.29a
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The Spinal Cord
Denticulate ligaments
anchor spinal cord to
vertebrae
Two deep grooves run the
length of the cord
Posterior median sulcus
Anterior median fissure
(not shown (ventral))
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Cross-section of the Spinal Cord/Vertebra
Figure 13.30a
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Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
Figure 13.30b
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Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
Shaped like the letter H
Gray commissure contains the central canal
Anterior horns contain cell bodies of motor
neurons
Posterior horns consist of interneurons
Gray matter divided according to somatic and
visceral regions
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Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
Figure 13.32
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White Matter of the Spinal Cord
Composed of myelinated and unmyelinated axons
Three types of fibers
Ascending
Descending
Commissural
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White Matter of the Spinal Cord
Figure 13.33
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Sensory and Motor Pathways
Most motor pathways:
Decussate at some point along their course
Consist of a chain of two or three neurons
Exhibit somatotopy
Tracts arranged according to the body region they
supply
All pathways are paired
One of each on each side of the body
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Ascending (Sensory) Pathways
Conduct general somatic sensory impulses
Chains of neurons composed of:
First-, second-, and third-order neurons
Four main ascending pathways
Dorsal column pathway
Spinothalamic pathway
Posterior spinocerebellar pathway
Anterior spinocerebellar pathway
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Ascending Pathways
Figure 13.34a
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Ascending Pathways
Figure 13.34b
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Descending (Motor) Pathways
Deliver motor instructions from the brain to the
spinal cord
Divided into two groups
Pyramidal, or corticospinal, tracts
Other motor pathways
Tectospinal tracts
Vestibulospinal tract
Rubrospinal tract
Reticulospinal tract
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Descending Motor Pathways
Figure 13.35a
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Descending Motor Pathways
Figure 13.35b
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Disorders of the Central Nervous System: Trauma
Traumatic brain injuries
Concussion brain injury is slight
Contusion marked destruction of brain tissue
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Disorders of the Central Nervous System: Stroke
Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)
Hemorrhagic
Ischemic
Blockage or interruption of blood flow to a brain region
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Stroke: CT Scan
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Disorders of the Central Nervous System
Brain dysfunction (continued)
Degenerative brain diseases
Alzheimers disease
Progressive degenerative disease leading to dementias
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Disorders of the Central Nervous System
Spinal cord damage
Paralysis loss of motor function
Parasthesia loss of sensation
Paraplegia injury to the spinal cord is between T
1

and L
2

Paralysis of the lower limbs
Quadriplegia injury to the spinal cord in the
cervical region
Paralysis of all four limbs
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MRI: Cervical Cord Injury
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The Central Nervous System Throughout Life
Congenital malformations
Hydrocephalus
Neural tube defects
Anencephaly cerebrum and cerebellum are absent
Spina bifida absence of vertebral lamina
Cerebral palsy voluntary muscles are poorly
controlled
Results from damage to the motor cortex
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Hydrocephalus
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Anencephaly
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Spina bifida