Proofs That Really Count

The Art of Combinatorial Proof

Bradford Greening, Jr.
Rutgers University - Camden
2
Theme
Show elegant counting proofs for several mathematical identities.

Proof Techniques

Pose a counting question

Answer it in two different ways. Both answers solve the same
counting question, so they must be equal.

3
Identity: For n 0,
Q: Number of ways to choose 2 numbers from {0, 1, 2, , n}?


1. By definition,

2. Condition on the larger of the two chosen numbers.
If larger number = k, smaller number is from {0, 1, , k 1}

Summing over all k, the total number of selections is
1
1
2
n
k
n
k
=
+
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2
n +
| |
|
\ .
1
n
k
k
=

4
Identity:
Q: Count ways to create a committee of even size from n people?




1. For 2k n,



1
0
2
2
n
k
n
k

>
| |
=
|
\ .

0
...
0 2 4 2 2
k
n n n n n
k k
>
| | | | | | | | | |
+ + + + =
| | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

5
Identity:
Q: Count ways to create a committee of even size from n people?

2. A committee of even size can be formed as follows:
Step 1: Choose the 1
st
person in or out 2 ways
Step 2: Choose the 2
nd
person in or out 2 ways

Step n-1: Choose the (n-1)
th
person in or out 2 ways
Step n: Choose the n
th
person in or out 1 way

By multiplication rule, there are 2
n-1
ways to form this committee.

1
0
2
2
n
k
n
k

>
| |
=
|
\ .

6
: n multi-choose k

Counts the ways to choose k elements from a set of n elements
with repetition allowed


{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} (n = 8, k = 6)

{1, 3, 3, 5, 7, 7} or {1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}

n
k
| |
| |
|
|
\ .
\ .
9
Identity:
Q: How many ways to create a non-decreasing sequence of length k
with numbers from {1, 2, 3, , n} and underline 1 term?


1. There are ways to create the sequence, then k ways to

choose the underlined term.
1
1
n n
k n
k k
+ | | | |
| | | |
=
| |
| |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .
n
k
| |
| |
|
|
\ .
\ .
10
Identity:
Q: How many ways to create a non-decreasing sequence of length k
with numbers from {1, 2, 3, , n} and underline 1 term?

2. Determine the value that will be underlined, let it be r.
Make a non-decreasing sequence of length k-1 from {1, 2, 3, , n+1}.
Convert this sequence:
Any rs chosen get placed to the left of our underlined r.
Any n+1s chosen get converted to rs and placed to the right of our r.

1
1
n n
k n
k k
+ | | | |
| | | |
=
| |
| |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .

Hence, there are such sequences.
1
1
n
n
k
+ | |
| |
|
|

\ .
\ .
11
Identity:
Example: n = 5, k = 9, and our underlined value is r = , then we
are choosing a length 8 sequence from {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

1
1
n n
k n
k k
+ | | | |
| | | |
=
| |
| |

\ . \ .
\ . \ .
1 1 2 3 3 5 6 6
1 1 2 3 3 5 2 2 2
2
1. Choose r
2. Create k-1 sequence
from n+1 numbers
3. Convert
8-sequence:

converts to

9-sequence:
12

Fibonacci Numbers a number sequence defined as

F
0
= 0, F
1
= 1,

and for n 2, F
n
= F
n-1
+ F
n-2


i.e. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144




5 + 8
Fibonacci Numbers
13
Fibonacci Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation




f
n
: Counts the ways to tile an n-board with squares and dominoes.


14
Example: n = 4, f
4
= 5
Fibonacci Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation
15
Fibonacci Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation


f
n
: Counts the ways to tile an n-board with squares and dominoes.

Define f
-1
= 0 and let f
0
= 1 count the empty tiling of 0-board.

Then f
n
is a Fibonacci number and for n 2,

f
n
= f
n-1
+ f
n-2
= F
n + 1



16
If the first tile is a square, there are
f
n 1
ways to complete sequence.



If the first tile is a domino, there are
f
n 2
ways to complete sequence.
Hence, f
n
= f
n

1
+ f
n 2
= F
n + 1
Fibonacci Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation
Q: How many ways to tile an n-board with squares and dominoes?
17
Identity: For n 0, f
0
+ f
1
+ f
2
+ + f
n
= f
n+2
-1


1. By definition there are f
n + 2
tilings of an (n+2)-board;
excluding the all-squares tiling leaves f
n + 2
1.


Q: How many tilings of an (n+2)-board have at least 1 domino?

18
Identity: For n 0, f
0
+ f
1
+ f
2
+ + f
n
= f
n+2
-1

2. Consider the last domino
(in spots k+1 & k+2).
f
k
ways to tile first k spots
1 way to tile remaining spots

Q: How many tilings of an (n+2)-board have at least 1 domino?

1 2 3 n n+1 n+2
1 2 3 n n+1 n+2
1 2 3 n n+1 n+2
1 2 3 n n+1 n+2
1 2 3 n n+1 n+2
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
0
f
1
f
2
f
n-1
f
n
Cells 1, 2, , k k+1 k+2
Summing over all possible
locations of k gives LHS.
19
Identity: For n 1, 3f
n
= f
n+2
+ f
n-2

Set 1: Tilings of an n-board; by definition, |Set 1| = f
n


Set 2: Tilings of an (n+2)-board or an (n-2)-board;
by definition, |Set 2| = f
n+2
+ f
n-2




Create a 1-to-3 correspondence between the set of n-tilings and the
set of (n+2)-tilings and (n-2)-tilings.
20
Identity: For n 1, 3f
n
= f
n+2
+ f
n-2


For each n-tiling, make 3 new tilings
by adding a domino

by adding two squares

a. if n-tiling ends in a square, put
a domino before the last square.
b. if n-tiling ends in a domino,
remove the domino
n-tiling
n-tiling
(n-1)-tiling
(n-2)-tiling
n-tiling
21
Identity: For n 0,
We say there is a fault at cell i, if both tilings are breakable at cell i.
( )
2
1
0
n
k n n
k
f f f
+
=
=

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
22
Identity: For n 0,
Q: How many tilings of an n-board and (n+1)-board exist?

1. By definition, f
n
f
n+1
tilings exist.

2. Place the (n+1)-board directly above the n-board.
Consider the location of the last fault.
( )
2
1
0
n
k n n
k
f f f
+
=
=

1 2 3 ... n n+1
1 2 3 ... n
23
Identity: For n 0,
How many tiling pairs have their last fault at cell k?

There are ( f
k
)
2
ways to tile the first k cells.

1 fault free way to tile the remaining cells:
( )
2
1
0
n
k n n
k
f f f
+
=
=

k
... k-1, k
Summing over all possible
locations of k gives LHS.
24
Identity: For n 0, 2
n
= f
n
+ f
n-1
+
Q: How many binary sequences of length n exist?


1. There are 2
n
binary sequences of length n.


2. For each binary sequence define a tiling as follows:
1 is equivalent to a square in the tiling.
01 is equivalent to a domino.

2
2
0
2
n
n k
k
k
f

=
-

25
Example:
The binary sequence 011101011 maps to the 9-tiling shown below.
2
2
0
2
n
n k
k
k
f

=
-

01 1 1 01 01 1

If no 00 exists, this gives a unique tiling of length
n (if the sequence ended in 1)
n-1 (if the sequence ended in 0)

Identity: For n 0, 2
n
= f
n
+ f
n-1
+
26
Identity: For n 0, 2
n
= f
n
+ f
n-1
+
What if 00 exists?

Let the first occurrence of 00 appear in cells k+1, k+2 (k n-2)




Match this sequence to the k-tiling defined by the first k terms of
the sequence. (Note: k > 0, then the kth digit must be 1)

Each k-tiling will be counted times.
2
2
0
2
n
n k
k
k
f

=
-

0 0
... ...
2 3 4 k 1 k+3 n-1 n
k+1 k+2
f
k
2
n-2-k
2
n-2-k
27
Identity: For n 0, 2
n
= f
n
+ f
n-1
+
2
2
0
2
n
n k
k
k
f

=
-

16 length-11 binary sequences generate the same 5-tiling

01101000000 01101001000
01101000001 01101001001
01101000010 01101001010
01101000011 01101001011
01101000100 01101001100
01101000101 01101001101
01101000110 01101001110
01101000111 01101001111
01 1 01
28
Lucas Numbers

Lucas Numbers a number sequence defined as

L
0
= 2, L
1
= 1,

and for n 2, L
n
= L
n-1
+ L
n-2


i.e. 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123, 199,
11+18
29

Lucas Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation



l
n
: Counts the ways to tile a circular n-board (called bracelets) with
curved squares and dominoes.

30
Lucas Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation
out-of-phase a
tiling where a domino
covers cells n and 1


in-phase all other
tilings

31

Lucas Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation


l
n
: Counts the ways to tile a circular n-board (called bracelets) with
curved squares and dominoes.
Let l
0
= 2, and l
1
= 1. Then for n 2,

l
n
= l
n-1
+ l
n-2
= L
n


32
Lucas Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation
Q: How many ways to tile a circular n-board?


Note that the first tile can be
a square covering cell 1
a domino covering cells 1 and 2
a domino covering cells n and 1



1
2 3
4
33
Lucas Nos: Combinatorial Interpretation
Consider the last tile (the tile counterclockwise before the first tile)
Since the first tile determines the phase, fixing the last tile shows us
l
n-1
tilings ending in a square and l
n-2
tilings ending in a domino
Hence, l
n
= l
n-1
+ l
n-2
= L
n

34
Identity: For n 1, L
n
= f
n
+ f
n-2
Question: How many tilings of a circular n-board exist?

1. There are L
n
circular n-bracelets.

2. Condition on the phase of the tiling:
in-phase straightens into an n-tiling, thus f
n
in-phase bracelets
out-of-phase: must have a domino covering cells n and 1
cells 2 to n-1 can be covered as a straight (n-2)-board,
thus f
n-2
out-of-phase bracelets.
35
Identity: For n 1, L
n
= f
n
+ f
n-2
n
n
36
Continued Fractions
Given a
0
0, a
1
1, a
2
1, , a
n
1, define [a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
] to be
the fraction in lowest terms for






For example, [2, 3, 4] =
0
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
...
1
n
a
a
a
a
a
+
+
+
+
+
1 30
2
1
13
3
4
+ =
+
37
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation


Define functions p and q such that the continued fraction

[a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
] =

when reduced to lowest terms.
0 1 2
0 1 2
( , , ,..., )
( , , ,..., )
n n
n n
p a a a a p
q a a a a q
=
38
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation


Let P
n
= P(a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) count the number of ways to tile an
(n+1)-board with dominoes and stackable square tiles.

Height Restrictions:
The ith cell may be covered by a stack of up to a
i
square tiles.
Nothing can be stacked on top of a domino.
39
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation
0
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n-1
a
n
1 2 3 n-1 n ...
...
...
40
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation
Recall P
n
counts the number of ways to tile an n+1 board with
dominoes and stackable square tiles.

Let Q
n
= Q(a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
) count the number of ways to tile an
n-board with dominoes and stackable square tiles.

Define Q
n
= P(a
1
, a
2
, , a
n
).
Then
0 1 2
[ , , , ... , ]
n n
n
n n
P p
a a a a
Q q
= =
41
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation
0
a
0
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n-1
a
n
1 2 3 n-1 n ...
...
...
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n-1
a
n
1 2 3 n-1 n ...
...
...
Q
n

P
n

42
Continued Fractions: Comb. Interpretation
0
3
7
15
1 2
For example, the beginning of the
-board given by [3, 7, 15] can be
tiled in 333 ways:
all squares = 315 ways
stack of squares, domino = 3 ways
domino, stack of squares = 15 ways

Removing the initial cell, the
[7, 15]-board can be tiled in 106 ways:
all squares = 105 ways
domino = 1 way

Thus [3, 7, 15] = 3.1415
7
15
1 2
333
106
43
What else?
Linear Recurrences

Binomial Identities

Stirling Numbers
Continued Fractions

Harmonic Numbers

Number Theory

Includes many open identities
44
References
All material from


Proofs That Really Count: The Art of Combinatorial Proof
By
Arthur T. Benjamin, Harvey Mudd College
and
Jennifer J. Quinn, Occidental College
2003