CHAPTER 2

MEMORY AND PROCESS MANAGEMENT

Explain memory management of operating system
Function of memory manager
Hierarchy of memory organization.
Memory management strategies
Resident and transient routines.
Memory swapping technique
Fixed-partition memory management
Segmentation
Paging
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Processor Manager
(CPU)
Device Manager
(keyboard, printer, disk
drive, modem)
Memory Manager
(main memory, also called RAM)
File Manager
(prog. Files, data files,
compilers,etc)
Each subsystem manager at the base
of the pyramid takes responsibility for its
own task while working harmoniously
with every other manager
Keep track of which part of memory are currently being used and by
whom

Decide which process to load when memory becomes available

Allocate and deal locate memory space as needed
Function of memory manager
Computer Memory Hierarchy is a pyramid structure that is commonly used to
illustrate the significant differences among memory types.













The memory unit that directly communicate with CPU is called the main memory
Devices that provide backup storage are called auxiliary memory
The memory hierarchy system consists of all storage devices employed in a
computer system from the slow by high-capacity auxiliary memory to a relatively
faster main memory, to an even smaller and faster cache memory

Increasing
performance and
increasing cost
Fast and Expensive
Slow and Inexpensive
Hierarchy of memory organization.
Levels of Memory Hierarchy
Features
Features of Memory Hierarchy
Fetch
-The method used to determine which block is to be obtained next.
-Determines when to move the next piece of a program or data to main memory
from secondary storage
E.g., demand fetching, anticipated fetching (prefetching).

Placement
-The method used to determine where to put a new block.
-Determines where in main memory should place incoming program or data pieces
E.g., Best-Fit, First-Fit, Worst-Fit

Replacement
-The method used to determine which resident block is to be displaced.
-Determines which piece to remove from the main memory
E.g., LRU, FIFO.




Memory management strategies
Best Fit Versus First - Fit
First Fit Memory Allocation Best Fit Memory Allocation
a main memory allocation
process that searches from
the beginning of the free block
list and select for allocation
the first block of memory large
enough to fulfill the request

a main memory allocation
process that consider all free
blocks and selects for all
allocation the one that will
result in the least amount of
wasted space.

Allocate program to the first
partition big enough to hold it.

Allocated program to the
smallest partition big enough
to hold it

Is a an allocation process are used by Fixed and Dynamic Memory
Allocation Scheme
Difference Between Two Allocation
Process
First Fit Allocation Best Fit Allocation
Faster in making allocation
but guide to memory
waste.
Make the best memory
use of memory space but
is slower in making
allocation
Worst Fit
Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list.
Produces the largest leftover hole. Worst performer
overall

Question 1
Given the list of process with its size:
Process A =100k
Process B = 170K
Process C = 130K
Process D = 250K
Process E = 200K
and the available partition as below :













Draw a placement of the process using
i. First Fit algorithm
ii. Best fit algorithm
iii. Worst Fit algorithm






200k
100k
150k
300k
250k
Operating
System
System
programs
System
programs
System
programs
System
programs
Work as a team
CPU idle time is avoided hence utilization of computer resources is
increased
Operating system programs commonly stored in magnetic disk drives
(DOS-disk operating system)
is an integrated collection of
Resident and transient
routines.
Operating
System
processing programs control programs
Function:
oversee system operations and
perform tasks such as
input/output, scheduling,
handling interrupts, and
communicating with the
computer operator or
programmer.

They make certain that
computer resources are used
efficiently.
Function:
used by programmers to aid in the
development of application and
system programs.
Example :
language translators;
linkage editor,
library programs, and
utility programs.
Resident and transient
routines.
The operating system is a collection of software routines
Resident Routines
Routines that directly support
application program as they
run
Eg : routine that control
physical I/O
Transient Routines
Stored on disk and read into
memory only when needed
Eg : routine that formats disks
Resident and transient routines.
Memory Swapping Techniques during system
processing
Swapping is a simple memory/process management technique used by the
operating system to increase the utilization of the processor by moving some
blocked process from the main memory to the secondary memory(hard disk)
user space is the memory
area where
application software
and some drivers execute
Fixed-partition memory management
First attempt to allow multiprogramming create fixed
partition scheme within the main memory (one
partition of each job)
Also known as static partition
This is because the size of partition was designated
when the system was powered on.
Each partition could only be reconfigured when the
computer system was shut down, reconfigured, restart.
Once system in operation the partition sized remained
static

20
Fixed Partitions (cont'd.)
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Fixed Partition
Advantages Disadvantages
More flexible scheme compare to single
user scheme because allow several
program to be in memory at the same
time.


Internal Fragmentation occur



Internal fragmentation is allocated
memory may be slightly larger than
requested memory; this size difference is
memory internal to a partition, but not
being used.

However, it still requires that the entire
program be stored contiguously and in
memory from the beginning to the end
of its execution
Example of internal fragmentation:
A program of size 2MB occupies an 8MB
partition wasted space internal to a
partition, as the data loaded is smaller
than the partition size.
No support for
multiprogramming or networking
Not cost effective
Program size must be less than
memory size to execute
Paging
Paging is a technique that partition memory into
small equal fixed-size called frames and divide each
process into the same size called pages.
When a process is to be executed, it's corresponding
pages are loaded into any available memory frames.
Logical address space of a process can be non-
contiguous and a process is allocated physical memory
whenever the free memory frame is available.
Operating system keeps track of all free frames.
Operating system needs n free frames to run a program
of size n pages.

Paging
Before execute a program/job, Memory Manager
prepares it by :
Determining the number of pages in the program
Locating enough empty pages frames in main memory
Loading all of the programs pages into pages frames
When program/job is initially prepared for
loading, pages are in logical sequence (the 1
st
page
contain the first instructions of the program and last page has the last
instructions)

Paging
Logical
Reference to a memory location
independent of the current
assignment of data to memory
Translation must be made to the
physical address
Logical address generated by the
CPU; also referred to as virtual
address
Physical
The absolute address or actual location in main
memory
Physical address address seen by the
memory unit

Paging Example
Page # Frame #
Paging Example
Page # Frame #
Page 3
Page 1
Page 4
Page 2
Page 0
Page 1
Page 2
Page 3
Page 4
0
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
Segmentation is a technique to break
memory into logical pieces where each piece
represents a group of related information.
A program is a collection of segments. A
segment is a logical unit such as:

Segmentation
main program,
procedure,
function,
method,
object,
arrays
local variables,
global variables,
common block,
stack,
symbol table
All segments of all programs do not have to be
of the same length
There is a maximum segment length
Addressing consist of two parts - a segment
number and an offset
Since segments are not equal, segmentation is
similar to dynamic partitioning
Segmentation
Example : Segmentation
Exercise
Answer
a. 219 + 430 = 649
b. 2300 + 10 = 2310
c. illegal reference, trap to operating system
d. 1327 + 400 = 1727
e. illegal reference, trap to operating system
2.2
PROCESS MANAGEMENT
OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Major System Resource Types Within A Computer
System
CPU Time
CPU time is an indication of how
much processing time that the
process has used since the
process has started
Memory
to store actively running
programs on the computer,
including the operating system
Hard Disk Space
Refers to the amount of space
available to store file in hard disk
Network Throughput
Electrical Power External Devices
I/O Operations

Process State
Process is a program in execution
When process execute it changes state
State represent processs current activity
Each process may be in one of the following state,
which are :
New : the process is being created
Running : instruction are being executed
Waiting : the process is waiting for some event to occur
(reception of signal)
Ready : the process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
Terminated : the process has finished execution
Life Cycle of a process
2.2 Explain process management of
operating system.
2.2.3 Describe the life cycle of a process:
a. Running 37
b. Ready 38
c. Blocked 39
2.2.4 Describe how the scheduling process is performed by an operating system. 40
2.2.5 Describe the role of interrupt in process management 41
2.2.6 Define the purpose of CPU scheduler.
a. Short-term scheduler 42
b. Mid-term scheduler 43
c. Long-term scheduler 44
2.2.7 Differentiate between preemptive and non-Preemptive
technique in scheduling. 45
2.2.8 Draw the following scheduling algorithms:
a. First In First Out (FIFO) 46
b. Round Robin 47
c. Shortest Job First 47
d. Priority 48
e. Multilevel Queue 49
f. Multilevel Feedback Queue 51


2.2.9 Calculate the average waiting time of the following scheduling algorithms:
a. First In First Out (FIFO) 52
b. Round Robin 53
c. Shortest Job First 54
d. Priority 55
2.2.10 Identify the appropriate scheduling criteria:
a. turn-around time 56
b. waiting time 57
c. response time 58
2.2.11 Calculate the appropriate scheduling criteria:
a. turn-around time 59 + 68 + 72
b. waiting time 60 + 69 + 74
c. response time 62 + 70 + 2001
2.2.12 State the definition of threads. 65
2.2.13 Describe the benefits of multithreading. 66
2.2.14 Describe threads relationship to processes 67