Functions and Their Graphs

a. Definition of Functions
b. Graphs of Functions and Equations
c. Operations on Functions
d. Composition of Functions
e. Types of Functions
1. Algebraic Functions
2. Transcendental Functions

a. Definition of Functions
A function defined on a set D, called the
Domain, is a set of ordered pairs of numbers (x, y) in
which no two distinct ordered pairs have the
same first number.
The number f(x) (read as f of x) is called the
function value of the function f at the number x. The
set of all admissible values of x is called the Domain
of f, and the set of all resulting values y = f(x) is called
the Range, denoted by R. The number x is called the
independent variable and y is called the dependent
variable.
X
1


X
2


X
3

y
1


y
2


y
3


y
4

a

b

c
e

d
Not a function

a function
Figure 1 Figure 2
In Figure 2, the Domain is the set {a, b, c} and
the Range is the set {d, e,}
Illustration 1:

Let f be a function defined by f(x) =
2
x 4 .
We compute f(x) for some specific values of x.
f(0) =
2
0 4 = 2 f(2) =
2
2 4 = 0
f(1) =
2
1 4 = 3
Some of the ordered pairs in f are (0, 2), (1, 3 ), (-1, 3 ),
(2, 0), (-2, 0). We observe that no two distinct pairs have the
same first number.
Domain of f: Note that for f(x) to be defined, 4 - x
2
> 0.
Thus, -2 s x s 2.
Range of f: It is specified that f(x) is the positive square
root of 4 - x
2
where -2 s x s 2. This tells us that the range
is [0, 2].
b. Graphs of Functions and Equations

The graph of a function f is the set of all
points (x, y) in the xy plane for which (x, y) is an
ordered
pair in f.
From this definition, the graph of f is the same as
the graph of the equation y = f(x).

Example : The graph of the function in Illustration 1 is
sketched in Figure 1. This can be done by considering
the domain and range of the function without using
point plotting.
Figure 1:
Graph of
2
4 x ) x ( f =
One can determine whether a set is function or not by
considering its graph and use the vertical line test. A vertical
line should intersect the graph of a function in at most one point.
In Figure 1, a vertical line intersects the graph in at most
one point.
Vertical Line Test
Illustration 2:
The set {(x, y) x
2
- y
2
= 9} is not a function since there
corresponds two values of y for one value of x.
The graph of this equation is a hyperbola with center at
(0, 0) oriented vertically. See the figure below.
The vertical line test shows that this is not a function.

Example 1: Given the function f(x) = x
2
+ 1. Find the
Domain and range of f.


Also, find
a. f(2x)
b. f(x + h)
c. f( a )
Solution:
Domain of f:
f is always defined for any real number x.
So,
D = {x x is any real number or - < x <
+}
Range of f: We see that x
2
> 0. So, R = {y y > 1}
a. f(2x) = (2x)
2
+ 1 = 4x
2
+ 1
b. f(x + h) = (x + h)
2
+ 1 = x
2
+ 2xh + h
2
+ 1
c. f( a ) = ( a )
2
+ 1 = a + 1
Example 2:
Determine the domain and range of the function and
sketch the graph.
1. f(x) = x
2
2
2. g(x) = x 9
3. h(x) =
2 x
4 x
2
+

4. F(x) =

>
=
< +
3 x if x
3 x if 2
3 x if 2 x
2

5. G(x) = 3 x
We see that
Example 1 is a quadratic function,
2 is a radical function,
3 is linear function with a hole,
4 is a piecewise-defined function, and
5 is an absolute-value function.
These are some examples of types of functions.
c. Operations on Functions
Given two functions f and g, their sum,
difference, product and quotient are
defined
as follows:
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
(f - g)(x) = f(x) - g(x)
(f / g)(x) = f(x) / g(x)

Example :
The functions f and g are defined by
f(x) = 1/x
2
and g(x) = 4 + x
2

define the following functions and find the domain of
the resulting function:
a. f + g , b. f g, c. f - g d. f/g

Solution:
a. (f + g)(x) =
2
x
1
+ 4 + x
2
=
2
4 2
x
x x 4 1 + +

b. (f - g)(x) =
2
x
1
- (4 + x
2
) =
2
4 2
x
x x 4 1

c. (f - g)(x) =
2
x
1
- (4 + x
2
) =
2
2
x
x 4 +

d. (f / g)(x) =
2
2
x 4
x
1
+
=
) x 4 ( x
1
2 2
+

The domain of each of the resulting functions (a d) is
the set of real numbers except 0.
d. Composition of Functions
The composition of two functions f and g is the
function f g defined by
(f g)(x) = f(g(x))
where the domain of f g is the set of all numbers x
in the domain of g such that g(x) is in the domain of
f. This is also called composite function.
Illustration: If f(x) =
2
x 2+ and g(x) = x
2
, then
(f g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x
2
) =
2 2
) x ( 2+ =
4
x 2+ and
(g f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
x 2 =
2
2
x 2
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 2 + x
2
.
e. Types of Functions
1. Algebraic Functions
An algebraic function is formed by a finite
number of algebraic operations on a variable where
the function is defined. These algebraic operations
include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
raising powers, and extracting roots.
A polynomial function f of degree n is a
function of the form f(x) = a
n
x
n
+ a
n-1
x
n-1
+ a
n-2
x
n-2
+ +
a
1
x + a
0

where a
0
, a
1
, , a
n
are real numbers, a
n
= 0 and n is a
nonnegative integer.
The function f(x) = 2x
4
6x
3
+ 8x 7 is a
polynomial function of degree 4.
1. A constant function is a function whose range consists
of only one number. It is denoted by f(x) = c where c is a
constant. Its graph is a horizontal line at a directed distance of c
units from the x-axis. The graph of the constant function f(x) = 3
is shown in the figure .
Kinds of Polynomial Functions:
y = 3
2. A linear function is a function of the form f(x) = mx + b
where m and b are constants and m = 0. It is the slope-
intercept form of a line where m is the slope and b is the y-
intercept.
Example: The function f(x) = 2x 3 is linear with m = 2
and b = -3 and whose graph is shown in the figure .
y = 2x -3
The function f(x) = x is particular linear function called the
identity function. Its graph is the line bisecting the first and third
quadrants.
3. A quadratic function is defined by
f(x) = ax
2
+ bx + c where a, b, and c are constants and a = 0.
Its graph is a parabola opening upward if a > 0 or opening
downward if
a < 0 where the vertex is at
x =
a 2
b
Example: The function defined by f(x) = 2x
2
4x + 5 is
quadratic. Its graph is a parabola opening upward with vertex at
(1, 3).
Observe that a linear function is a polynomial of degree 1
and a quadratic function is of degree 2. If a polynomial is of
degree 3, it is called a cubic function.
A rational function is a function that can be
expressed as the quotient of two polynomials.
Polynomial and rational functions are particular kinds
of algebraic functions.
Example: f(x) =
5 x 2 x
4 x
3
2
+
+
Even and Odd Function
i) A function f is an even function if for every x in
the domain of f, f(-x) = f(x).
ii) A function f is an odd function if for every x in the
domain of f, f(-x) = - f(x).
Other Types of Functions
Example
(a) The function f(x) = x
2
is an even function since
f(-x) = (-x)
2
= x
2
. Its graph is a parabola symmetric with the y-
axis. See the figure.
(b) The function g(x) = x
3
is an odd function because
g(-x) = (-x)
3
= -x
3
. Its graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin. See the figure.
y = x
2

y = x
3

Radical Functions of the form
1. (i) f(x) = x a and (ii) f(x) = x a +
are half-portions of a parabola (or semi-parabolas),
upper-half if positive and lower-half if negative.
(i) opening to the left, (ii) opening to the right
Example: y = x 9 is the upper-half portion of a parabola
opening to the left with vertex at (9, 0).
2. f(x) =
2
x a
are half-portions of a circle (or semi-circles),
upper-half if positive and lower- half if negative.
Example: y =
2
x 4 is the lower-half portion of a circle
with center at (0, 0) and radius r = 2.
3. (i) f(x) =
2
x a + and (ii) f(x) = a x
2

are half-portions of a hyperbola (or semi-hyperbolas),
upper-half if positive and lower-half if negative.
(i) hyperbola oriented vertically, (ii) hyperbola oriented horizontally
Example: y = 8 x
2
is the upper-half portion of the hyperbola
oriented horizontally with center at (0, 0) where a = b = 8 .
Piece-defined Functions or Conditional Functions
Example: Refer to Example 2.
F(x) =

>
=
< +
3 x if x
3 x if 2
3 x if 2 x
2

Absolute-Value Function
Example: Refer to Example 2.
G(x) = 3 x
24
2. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

Definition of Limit of a Function

Theorems on Limit of a Function

One-Sided Limits

Infinite Limits

Limits at Infinity

Continuity of a Function

Trigonometric Limits
x
y

25
To understand the concept of a limit, let us consider the function:


Let us observe what happens to f(x) when x is made to approach 2 from the right
(that is values of x greater than 2) and when x is made to approach 2 from the left
(that is values of x less than 2).

Table 1 shows the values of f when x approaches 2 from the right. As x
approaches 2 from the right, what do you observe with the values of f?

Table 2 shows the values of f when x approaches 2 from the left. As x approaches
2 from the left, what do you observe with the values of f?









Table 1 Table 2

( )
2 x
4 x 4 x 3
x f
2

=
x
1 5
1.5 6.5
1.9 7.7
1.99 7.97
1.999 7.997

( )
2 x
4 x 4 x 3
x f
2

=
x
3 11
2.5 9.5
2.1 8.3
2.01 8.03
2.001 8.003

( )
2 x
4 x 4 x 3
x f
2

=
2.1 Limit of a Function, its Definition










Definition of Limit of a Function

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. The limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L, written as


if the following statement is true:
Given any c > 0, however small, there exists a o > 0 such that
if 0< |x - a| < o then |f(x) - L| < c .
( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

26
y = f(x)
x
y
a a+o
1

a - o
1

L
L+c
1

L - c
1

This means that f(x) approaches L
as x approaches a if the absolute
value of the difference between
f(x) and L can be made as small
we please by taking x sufficiently
near a but not equal to a.
27
Example:
Show by definition that
9 1 x 2 lim
4 x
= +

Solution:
Let c > 0. We want to find o such that
if 0< |x - 4 < o then |2x +1 - 9| = | 2x - 8| < c.
If 0< |x - 4 < o then |2x +1 - 9| < c.
if 0< |x - 4 < o then | 2x - 8| < c.
if 0< |x - 4 < o then 2| x - 4| < c.
if 0< |x - 4 < o then | x - 4| < c/2.
So, we take o = c/2.

,
28
2.2 Theorems on Limits of Functions
Theorem 1 (Limit of Identity Function)
If f(x) = x, then
Example:

Theorem 2 (Limit of a Constant Function)
If c is a constant, then for any number a,

Example:
Theorem 3 (Limit of a Linear Function)
If m and b are any constants,

Example:
Theorem 4 (Limit of the Sum of two functions)
If and , then

Example:


a x Lim
a x
=

c c Lim
a x
=

( ) b ma b mx Lim
a x
+ = +

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

( ) M x g Lim
a x
=

( ) ( ) | | M L x g x f Lim
a x
+ = +

4 x Lim
4 x
=

8 8 Lim
2 x
=

( ) 9 1 ) 2 ( 4 1 x 4 Lim
2 x
= =

( ) | | 24 3 21 3 x 7 Lim
3 x
= + = +

29
Theorem 5 (Limit of the Product of two functions)
If and , then

Example:
Theorem 6 (Limit of the Quotient of two functions)
If and such that M= 0, then

Example:

Theorem 7 (Limit of the nth Power of a function)
If and n is any positive integer, then

Example:
Theorem 8 (Limit of the nth root of a function)
If n is a positive integer and then

Example:
Note that if n is even, L should be greater than 0.

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

( ) M x g Lim
a x
=

( ) ( ) | | M L x g x f Lim
a x
- = -

( )
( ) M
L
x g
x f
Lim
a x
=

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

( ) M x g Lim
a x
=

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

( ) | |
n n
a x
L x f Lim =

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=

( )
n
n
a x
L x f Lim =

( )( ) ( )( ) 16 8 2 5 x 1 x Lim
3 x
= = +

1
6
6
8 x
4 x
Lim
2 x
=

( ) ( ) 16 4 1 x Lim
2 2
3 x
= =

2 8 x 3 Lim
3 3
11 x
= = +


1. ( ) 12 x 7 x 3 Lim
2
3 x
+

6.
( )
3
2
2 x
2 x
2 x
Lim

+

11.
x 2
16 x
Lim
2
4 x

2.
|
.
|

\
|
+

5 x 3 x Lim
2 3
2 x
7.
2 x x
1 x
Lim
2
1 x

+

12.
t
2
1
t 2
1
Lim
0 t

3.
1 x x
1 x
Lim
2
1 x
+ +
+

8.
( )
16 z
2 z
Lim
4
2
2 z

+

13.
x 9
x 3
Lim
9 x

4. ( )
3
0 w
2 w Lim +

9.
3 t
9 t
Lim
2
3 t

14.
3 x
3
1
x
1
Lim
3 x

5.
2 z
2 z 3
Lim
4 z

+

10.
8 x 2 x 3
4 x
Lim
2
2
2 x

15.
t
2 4 t
Lim
0 t
+

Evaluate the following limits
30
Answer:
1. 36 4. 7. -1/3 10. 2/5 13. 1/6
2. -15 5. 7 8. 0 11. -32 14. -1/9
3. 2/3 6. 0 9. 6 12. -1/4 15. 1/4
2 2
For nos. 7 15, you need to simplify the function (by factoring or by conjugate) before you can
find the limit. You do this when by initial substitution, the result is 0/0.
Solution to selected numbers:

8. 11.





10. 12.
( ) ( )
( )
0
) 4 4 )( 2 2 (
2 2
) 4
2
z )( 2 z (
2 z
2 z
Lim
) 4
2
z )( 2 z )( 2 z (
2
2 z
2 z
Lim
16
4
z
2
2 z
2 z
Lim
=
+
+
=
+
+

=
+ +
+

=

+

5
2
10
4
4 ) 2 ( 3
2 2
4 x 3
2 x
2 x
Lim
) 4 x 3 )( 2 x (
) 2 x )( 2 x (
2 x
Lim
8 x 2
2
x 3
4
2
x
2 x
Lim
= =
+
+
=
+
+

= =
+
+

32 ) 4 2 )( 4 4 (
) x 2 )( 4 x (
4 x
Lim
x 4
) x 2 )( 4 x )( 4 x (
4 x
Lim
x 2
x 2
.
x 2
16
2
x
4 x
Lim
x 2
16
2
x
4 x
Lim
= + + =
+ +

=

+ +

=
+
+

4
1
) t 2 ( 2
1
0 t
Lim
) t 2 ( t 2
) t 2 ( 2
0 t
Lim
t
) t 2 ( 2
) t 2 ( 2
0 t
Lim
t
2
1
t 2
1
0 t
Lim

=
+

=
+
+

=
+
+

32
2.3 One Sided-Limits
Definition 2.1
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval (a,c), then the
limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right is L written as .

This is the right-hand limit.

( ) L x f Lim
a x
=
+

Definition of Right-Hand Side Limit

Definition 2.2

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some open interval (a,c), then the
limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left is M written as .

This is the left-hand limit.

Definition of Left-Hand Side Limit

( ) M x f Lim
a x
=

Theorem:
The two sided limit exists and is equal to L if and only if
and both exist and are both equal to L.

( ) x f Lim
a x
+

( ) x f Lim
a x

33
Example: Use the graph of y = f(x) to find the limit of the following:
1. 3. 5. 7. 9.

2. 4. 6. 8.

( ) x f Lim
1 x


( ) x f Lim
1 x
+

( ) x f Lim
1 x

( ) x f Lim
1 x
+

( ) x f Lim
1 x
( ) x f
1 x
Lim

( ) x f
4 x
Lim

( ) x f
4 x
Lim
+

( ) x f
4 x
Lim

34
Example: (p.57 58)
Find the indicated limit:


#18.

>
s s
< +
=
1 x if x 2
1 x 1 if x
1 x if 1 x
) x ( f
2
) x ( f lim ) a
1 x


) x ( f lim ) b
1 x
+

) x ( f lim ) c
1 x
) x ( f lim ) d
1 x

) x ( f lim ) e
1 x
+

) x ( f lim ) f
1 x
#32. Given .


Find the values of a and b such that and

both exist.

>
s s +
<
=
3 x if x 5 b
3 x 3 if b 2 ax
3 x if a x 2
) x ( f
) x ( f lim
3 x
) x ( f lim
3 x
Answer: a) 0 c) does not exist e) 1
b) 1 d) 1 f) 1
Answer: and
( ) ( )
0 3 b a
0 6 b 2 a 2
b 2 ) 3 ( a a ) 3 ( 2
x f
3 x
Lim x f
3 x
Lim
=
=
+ =
+

=

( ) ( )
0 15 b a 3
) 3 ( 5 b b 2 ) 3 ( a
x f
3 x
Lim x f
3 x
Lim
= + +
= +
+

Solving for a, b in
a b 3 = 0 and 3a + b + 15= 0
We get a = -3 and b = -6
35
2.4 Infinite Limits
Consider the function defined by ( )
( )
2
1 x
2
x f

= . Observe what happens to f(x) when we let x assume

values approaching 1 from the right and from the left. The tables that follow show the values generated
for f(x) upon substituting certain values to the variable x in the given function.
Table 1 Table 2
x
( )
( )
2
1 x
2
x f

=
x
( )
( )
2
1 x
2
x f

=
0 2 2 2
0.5 8 1.5 8
0.9 200 1.1 200
0.99 20000 1.01 20000
0.999 2000000 1.001 2000000
0.9999 200000000 1.0001 200000000

What do you observe in the function values reflected in the two tables?
36
Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some interval I containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) increases without bound and is
written as

( ) + =

x f Lim
a x
Definition of Infinite Limit, Increasing without Bound

Let f be a function that is defined at every number in some interval I containing a, except
possibly at the number a itself. As x approaches a, f(x) decreases without bound and is
written as

( ) =

x f Lim
a x
Definition of Infinite Limit, Decreasing without Bound

Theorem 2.4.1

If r is any positive integer, then
1. =
+

r
0 x x
1
Lim ;
2.

+

=

even is r if
odd is r if
x
1
Lim
r
0 x

37
Theorem 2.4.2

If a is any real number, and if ( ) 0 x f Lim
a x
=

and ( ) c x g Lim
a x
=

, where c is a constant not equal

to 0, then
1. if c>0 and if f(x) 0 through positive values of f(x),
( )
( )
+ =

x f
x g
Lim
a x

2. if c>0 and if f(x) 0 through negative values of f(x),
( )
( )
=

x f
x g
Lim
a x

3. if c<0 and if f(x) 0 through positive values of f(x),
( )
( )
=

x f
x g
Lim
a x

4. if c<0 and if f(x) 0 through negative values of f(x),
( )
( )
+ =

x f
x g
Lim
a x

The theorem is valid if x a is replaced by xa
+
or x a
-

38
Theorem 2.4.3

1. If ( ) + =

x f Lim
a x
and ( ) c x g Lim
a x
=

, where c is any constant, then ( ) ( ) | | + =

x g x f Lim
a x

2. If ( ) =

x f Lim
a x
and ( ) c x g Lim
a x
=

, where c is any constant, then ( ) ( ) | | =

x g x f Lim
a x

The theorem is valid if x a is replaced by xa
+
or xa
-

Theorem 2.4.4

If ( ) + =

x f Lim
a x
and ( ) c x g Lim
a x
=

, where c is any constant except 0, then

1. if c>0, ( ) ( ) | | + = -

x g x f Lim
a x
;
2. if c<0, ( ) ( ) | | = -

x g x f Lim
a x

The theorem is valid if x a is replaced by xa
+
or xa
-

Theorem 2.4.5

If ( ) =

x f Lim
a x
and ( ) c x g Lim
a x
=

, where c is any constant except 0, then

1. if c>0, ( ) ( ) | | = -

x g x f Lim
a x
;
2. if c<0, ( ) ( ) | | + = -

x g x f Lim
a x

The theorem is valid if x a is replaced by xa
+
or xa
-

Example: Find the limits of the
following functions.
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
|
.
|

\
|

+ +

+ +

4
3
4 3
2
4
4
3
2
1
3
3 2
2
3 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
4
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
1
t
t t
lim
.
s
s
lim
.
x x
x x
lim
) b
x x
x x
lim
) a .
x
x
lim
.
t
s
x x
x
40
Definition of a Vertical Asymptote

The line x = a is considered to be a VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE if at least one of the following is true:
1) ( ) + =
+

x f Lim
a x
, 2) ( ) =
+

x f Lim
a x
, 3) ( ) + =

x f Lim
a x
and 4) ( ) =

x f Lim
a x

2.5 Limits at Infinity
Consider the function defined by ( )
2 x
x
x f
2
2
+
= . Observe what happens to f(x) when we let x increase
without bound (x+) and decrease without bound (x- ). The tables that follow show the values
generated for f(x) upon substituting certain values to the variable x in the given function.
Table 1 Table 2
x ( )
2 x
x
x f
2
2
+
= x ( )
2 x
x
x f
2
2
+
=
0 0 0 0
5 0.92592593 -5 0.92592593
9 0.97590361 -9 0.97590361
10 0.98039216 -10 0.98039216
100 0.99980004 -100 0.99980004
1000 099999998 -1000 099999998

What do you observe in the function values reflected in the two tables?
41
Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a,+), the limit of f(x) as x
increases without bound is L, written as

( ) L x f Lim
x
=
+
Definition of Limit at Infinity, x Increasing without Bound

Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a,+), the limit of f(x) as x
decreases without bound is L, written as

( ) L x f Lim
x
=

Definition of Limit at Infinity, x Decreasing without Bound

Limits at Infinity
?
Continuity
Differentiation Formulas
Product and Quotient Rules