Factors controlling the stratigraphy recording Homewood et al., 2000 The concept of Accommodation, Jervey, 1988 The accommodation space is controlling largely by external processes such as changes In sea level, climate, tectonic movements, volcanic activity, compaction and longer term Subsidence rates which together define a depositional base level 1. Sediment supply (volume, composition, grain size) Controlling factors Siliclastic sediments Others: evaporites, carbonates, diatomites, cherts, ironstones, phosphorites and carbonaceous sediments CLIMATE / TECTONIC / BEDROCK GEOLOGY / BASINAL WATER CHEMISTRY Terrigenous extrabasinal particles Biochemical intrabasinal particles 2. Terrigenous systems Deep-water system are supplied from an adjacent shelf or delta Shelves are supplied from coasts and coastal plains, may be deltaic Deltas are supplied from alluvial systems The rate of sediment is controlled more by the volume of sediment available in a given time interval than by transport capacities Coarse-grained or gravel-rich alluvial, delatic, deep-sea systems Medium-grained or sand-rich systems Fine-grained mud-rich systems - Small and steep - High competence required, sediment transport and deposition are short-time - Frequent and related to catastrophic events (floods, slumping caused by seismic shocks, etc.) - To be intermediate in size and moderate gradients - The range of grain sizes means: physical processes of transport and deposition operate a wide large of energy level - Frequent and related to catastrophic events (floods, slumping caused by seismic shocks, etc.) - Can be small in size, but the majority are large, with low gradients (delta plains, submarine fans,...) - Where sediment supply are high, the rapid deposition of muds and silts caused frequent slumping on delta slopes and submarine fans in depsite of the low gradient - Single point source - Multiple sources The pattern of sediment supply delivery to the basin is also important. 3. Biochemical and chemical systems - Temperature - Water chemistry - Penetration of the light into the water - Hermatypic corals and larger foraminifera are light dependent - Molluscs, bryozoans, crinoids and brachiopods depend on phytoplancton - Planktonic foraminifera and coccoliths - Radiolaria, diatoms, siliciflagellates and some sponges - Nutrient-rich waters in zones of oceanic producing - Dissolution of the particles throught the water column (CCD; ACD) Production of biochemical sediment (lakes and Sea) is controlled by the nature and productivity of the biota In deep basins only surface waters penetrated by light produce significant sediment Evaporites are precipitated directly from sea or lake waters and have become concentrated to form brines 4. Climate - Temperature, Precipitation and locally, winds regimes - Mean annual temperature and precipitation - Fluctuations (seasons, magnitude and frequency of extreme events) - Long term, medium term, short term - The sun's radiation - The rotation of the earth (deflecting effect as the coriolis force) - In the northern hemisphere: anticlockwise rotation - In the southern hemisphere: clockwise rotation - The distribution of continents and oceans - Periglacial*; Humid temperate*; Dry continental*, Tropical arid, Tropical semi-arid*; Tropical wet-dry*; Humid tropical; Glacial -* season - Temperature: evaporites, glacail tills, some oolites, palaesols, vegetation and many faunas - Climate also governs sediment yield (Devonian time, carboneferous time) Two main aspects of climate The meteorological patterns of the Earth are primarily a consequence of the interactionof Eight morphoclimatic regions are defined Climate is a prime control on many sedimentary facies and they can be excellent palaeoclimatic indicators Climate zonation Global Heat Balance: Introduction to Heat Fluxes Climate Three cell circulation model Motion of oceanic currents 5. Tectonic movements and subsidence - Isostatic movements: vertical adjustments in the lithosphere arising from its loading or unloading by Water, sediment or ice - or by thermal or dynamic changes in the mantle - sediment loading may enhance crustal subsidence by a factor of 3 - Himalayas produce the largest volumes of sediment - Many moutain belts : american cordillera, the Pyrenees, the Alps and Zagros moutains of Iran have a foreland basin, formed as a result crustal loading by the nearby mountain belt - Subduction zones: accretionary wedge, forearc, volcanic arc and backarc basin - Strike-slip basin, and extensonational rifts - Fault blocks - Broad passive continental margins - Large stable cratons of NAmerica, Russian, Australian shield Tectonic movements affect sedimentation in a number of different ways and on many different scales Global scale and source of sediment Mod. from Scotese and PALEOMAP (2005) Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 60 ma Paleocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 50 ma Early Eocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 40 ma Late Eocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 30 ma Oligocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 20 ma Early Miocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 10 ma Late Miocene Southeast Asia Cenozoic Paleogeographic Evolution 0 ma Present day Gas and Oil fields
1000 km 0 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 Phitsanulok Yinggehai Hue Pearl River Mouth Luconia Sarawak Baram Sabah Qui Nohn East Vietnam West Natuna Malay Pattani Western Kra Grabens Chumphon North Sumatra Central Sumatra South Sumatra Sunda/ Asri Billiton Pembuang NW Java NE Java Kutei Tarakan Muara Sandakan Penyu Lombok East Natuna Con Son Cuu Long Balabac Ketungau Melawi AUSTRALIA SE ASIA Eastern Indonesia Philippine Arc Mesozoic Basins Beibuwan 6. Sea-level changes - Eustatic sea-level change - Relative sea-level change - Shorter-term variations include those due to : waves, tides, (diurnal, semi-diurnal) , Tsunamis, volcanic phenomena - Longer-term variations: the interplay of changes in global sea level and basin floor subsidence anf uplift - Glacioisostasy or glacioisostatic oscillations - Changes in the total volume of mid-ocean ridges - Continental collision - Influx of terrigenous sediment - Mid-plate (hotspot) - Owing the thermal cooling and densification of the oceanic lithosphere Sea-level changes are of two types Sea-level changes occur on a variety of scales Changes in the volume of the ocean basins may have many causes WHAT IS SEA LEVEL ? (Homewood et al., 1999) (Bertram et al., 1996) 7. Milankovitch processes and orbital forcing The Milankovitch theory has become accepted as an important control on climatic variations outside the ice ages and on the nature of sedimentary sequences not only on pelagic and lacustrine sediments, but also on terrigenous clastic sediments